Chronic Kidney Disease as a Cardiovascular Disorder—Tonometry Data Analyses
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Group
- The hemodialyzed patients’ group, named HD (n = 71), included patients treated with hemodialysis (HD). HD procedures were performed on each patient three times a week via an arteriovenous fistula from their own or artificial vessels. The duration of HD was at least 10 h/week using standard bicarbonate dialysis fluids and polysulfone low-flux dialyzers. The blood flow during HD was 200–350 mL/min, with an average dialysis fluid flow of 500 mL/min.
- The peritoneal dialyzed patients’ group, named PD (n = 35), included patients treated with peritoneal dialysis with standard lactate and glucose-based fluids. In this group, initially, due to the treatment technique, two subgroups were separated: (a) a group (n = 15) treated with the automatic peritoneal dialysis (ADO) technique in which the cycler performed an automatic fluid exchange at night in the peritoneal cavity, the mean exchange time was 10 h, and in some patients, an additional 7.5% icodextrin solution was used during the day; and (b) a group of patients (n = 20) using the technique of continuous cycling peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), performing 3–5 daily dialysis fluid changes in the peritoneal cavity, volume 1.5–2.5 liters. In some patients, an additional 7.5% icodextrin solution was used in a single, long exchange. When the subgroups were analyzed separately, no statistically significant differences between the two techniques were shown, possibly due to the small size of the groups; hence, the group of peritoneal dialysis patients was presented as a whole, i.e., the PD group.
- The pre-dialyzed patients’ group, named PRE (n = 48), included patients in the pre-dialysis period (stage G3b-G4 CKD) with a moderate or severe decrease in eGFR (eGFR 44–29 mL/min/1.73 ).
- Patients at the early stages of CKD formed a group named CKD1-2 (n = 29), which included patients at the stages G1-G2 CKD with a mild decrease in eGFR (eGFR >90–60 mL/min/1.73 ). The studies in this group were conducted to check the changes that occur due to CVD but without kidney disease.
- Cardiology patients’ group, named CARD (n = 37), including patients with a history of at least one CV event, admitted to the hospital (Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology–Intensive Therapy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences) for elective angiography, in whom both laboratory and clinical signs of impaired kidney function were revealed.
- Healthy volunteers’ group, named CONTROL (n = 32), was composed of healthy people, with no evidence of impairment of renal and cardiovascular functions in their history and at the time of enrollment in the study. This group included people recruited from among those reporting to the laboratory for routine checkups.
2.2. Non-Invasive Cardiological Examinations
- -
- Heart rate (HR) [bpm],
- -
- Ejection duration (ED) [ms],
- -
- Peripheral systolic blood pressure (pSP) [mmHg],
- -
- Peripheral diastolic blood pressure (pDP) [mmHg],
- -
- Peripheral mean pressure (pMEANP, pMAP) [mmHg],
- -
- Time to first peak (peripheral T1, pT1) [ms],
- -
- Time to second peak (peripheral T2, pT2) [ms],
- -
- Peripheral pressure at first peak (pP1) [ms],
- -
- Peripheral pressure at second peak (pP2 [ms],
- -
- Peripheral T1/ED% (pT1ED),
- -
- Peripheral T2/ED% (pT2ED),
- -
- Peripheral augmentation index (pAI) [%],
- -
- Peripheral end systolic pressure (pESP) [mmHg],
- -
- Central diastolic pressure (cDP) [mmHg],
- -
- Central mean pressure (cMEANP, cMAP) [mmHg],
- -
- Central pulse pressure (cPP) [mmHg],
- -
- Time to first peak-Aortic (cT1) [ms],
- -
- Time to second peak-Aortic (cT2) [ms],
- -
- cT1R (time of the start of the reflected wave) [ms],
- -
- Central pressure at first peak (cP1) [mmHg],
- -
- Central pressure at second peak (cP2) [mmHg],
- -
- T1/ED% control panels (cT1ED),
- -
- Central T2/ED% (cT2ED),
- -
- Central augmentation index (cAI) [%],
- -
- Central end systolic pressure (cESP) [mmHg],
- -
- Central augmented pressure (cAP) [mmHg],
- -
- Central mean pressure of systole (cMPS) [mmHg],
- -
- Central mean pressure of diastole (cMPD) [mmHg],
- -
- Central tension time index (cTTI) [mmHg · s],
- -
- Central diastolic pressure-time index (cDTI) [%],
- -
- cSVI (SEVR) Buckberg Sub-Endocardial Viability Ratio [%],
- -
- Central pulse period (cPERIOD) [ms],
- -
- Central diastolic duration (cDD) [mmHg],
- -
- Central pulse high (cPH) [mmHg],
- -
- Central systolic pulse pressure (cPP) [mmHg],
- -
- Central diastolic pressure (cDP) [mmHg],
- -
- Time from systolic inflection point (if present) or systolic peak to diastolic inflection point (PPT).
- -
- Reflection index (RI) [%],
- -
- Vascular stiffness index (SI) [m/s],
- -
- Peripheral pulse pressure (pPP) [mmHg],
- -
- Peripheral pulse pressure/central pulse pressure (pPP/cPP ratio) [%].
2.3. Ethics Statement
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. General Information
3.2. Differences between the Groups
3.3. Correlation Structure of the Groups
3.4. Dimensionality Reduction and Profile Creation
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Age | Sex (% Female) | Smoking | |
---|---|---|---|
HD (n = 71) | 57.51 ± 14.84 | 32.4% | 21.13% |
PD (n = 35) | 52.83 ± 18.33 | 42.86% | 0% |
PRE (n = 48) | 62.64 ± 10.72 | 47.92% | 12.5% |
CARD (n = 37) | 59.84 ± 8.33 | 32.43% | 18.92% |
CKD1-2 (n = 29) | 60.93 ± 12.04 | 34.48% | 0% |
Control (n = 32) | 60.28 ± 12.49 | 46.87% | 6.25% |
BMI | % Overweight | |
---|---|---|
HD (n = 71) | 22.96 ± 3.67 | 21.12% |
PD (n = 35) | 23.41 ± 3.22 | 28.57% |
PRE (n = 48) | 25.45 ± 3.66 | 50% |
CARD (n = 37) | 28.16 ± 4.1 | 72.97% |
CKD1-2 (n = 29) | 28.19 ± 3.06 | 86.21% |
Control (n = 32) | 25.04 ± 4.05 | 34.37% |
Parameter Name | H | p-Value |
---|---|---|
ED | 20.5221 | 0.001 |
pSP | 52.609 | < |
pDP | 29.0132 | < |
pMEANP | 58.639 | < |
pT1 | 22.7532 | 0.0004 |
pT2 | 22.2066 | 0.0005 |
pP1 | 62.9692 | < |
pP2 | 57.3636 | < |
pT1ED | 22.2034 | 0.0005 |
pT2ED | 42.1697 | < |
pAI | 9.9668 | 0.0762 |
pESP | 36.9327 | < |
cMEANP | 48.0839 | < |
cPP | 62.1512 | < |
cT1 | 17.679 | 0.0034 |
cT2 | 23.2157 | 0.0003 |
cT1R | 13.8238 | 0.0168 |
cP1 | 52.908 | < |
cP2 | 52.375 | < |
cT1ED | 15.3751 | 0.0089 |
cT2ED | 9.7243 | 0.0834 |
cAI | 13.7502 | 0.0173 |
cESP | 42.3102 | < |
cAP | 27.3468 | < |
cMPS | 53.2218 | < |
cMPD | 33.5388 | < |
cTTI | 85.9245 | < |
cDTI | 5.0134 | 0.4142 |
cSVI | 57.7267 | < |
cPERIOD | 25.2241 | 0.0001 |
cDD | 37.1145 | < |
cPH | 46.1326 | < |
cSP | 63.5783 | < |
cDP | 20.907 | 0.0008 |
PPT | 10.2408 | 0.0687 |
RI | 20.1941 | 0.0011 |
SI | 5.8177 | 0.3244 |
pPP | 53.8578 | < |
pPP/cPP | 23.6809 | 0.0003 |
Parameter Name | Control | HD | PD | PRE | CARD | CKD1-2 | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ED | 0 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 5.9231 | 0.3138 |
pSP | 0 | 15 | 11 | 16 | 13 | 15 | 15.3714 | 0.0089 |
pDP | 1 | 14 | 5 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 14.8276 | 0.0111 |
pMEANP | 1 | 15 | 12 | 14 | 13 | 14 | 11.9565 | 0.0354 |
pT1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2.5 | 0.7765 |
pT2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 8.5 | 0.1307 |
pP1 | 12 | 15 | 11 | 15 | 13 | 15 | 1.1481 | 0.9498 |
pP2 | 11 | 16 | 14 | 18 | 12 | 12 | 2.6627 | 0.7518 |
pT1ED | 1 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 0.2206 |
pT2ED | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 10.3333 | 0.0663 |
pAI | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 0 | 4 | 8 | 0.1562 |
pESP | 9 | 14 | 7 | 16 | 13 | 15 | 5.1351 | 0.3996 |
cDP | 3 | 6 | 2 | 14 | 3 | 9 | 17.3243 | 0.0039 |
cMEANP | 10 | 15 | 12 | 14 | 13 | 14 | 1.2308 | 0.9419 |
cPP | 2 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 8.4286 | 0.1341 |
cT1 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2.2 | 0.8208 |
cT2 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 3.8 | 0.5786 |
cT1R | 3 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1.5455 | 0.9078 |
cP1 | 12 | 15 | 13 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 0.3902 | 0.9956 |
cP2 | 11 | 17 | 13 | 17 | 13 | 17 | 2.4091 | 0.7901 |
cT1ED | 3 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1.4 | 0.9243 |
cT2ED | 0 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 3 | 0.7 |
cAI | 6 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 2.1111 | 0.8336 |
cESP | 10 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 13 | 15 | 1.8941 | 0.8636 |
cAP | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 0.7143 | 0.9822 |
cMPS | 12 | 14 | 12 | 14 | 13 | 16 | 0.8519 | 0.9736 |
cMPD | 11 | 14 | 10 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 1.08 | 0.9559 |
cTTI | 7 | 11 | 0 | 1 | 13 | 5 | 22.1892 | 0.0005 |
cDTI | 7 | 12 | 8 | 14 | 12 | 13 | 3.6364 | 0.6029 |
cSVI | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3.1538 | 0.6763 |
cPERIOD | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2.2857 | 0.8084 |
cDD | 2 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 0.5494 |
cPH | 3 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 4 | 7 | 3.3333 | 0.6487 |
cSP | 11 | 14 | 10 | 16 | 1 | 14 | 13.0909 | 0.0225 |
PPT | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 3.6667 | 0.5983 |
RI | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 13 | 0.0234 |
SI | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2.4286 | 0.7872 |
pPP | 6 | 7 | 8 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 18.9091 | 0.002 |
pPP/cPP | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2.5 | 0.7765 |
Sum | 168 | 278 | 244 | 290 | 230 | 260 |
Approach | Chosen Method | Selection Criteria | Number of Selected Parameters | KFDA Accuracy |
---|---|---|---|---|
No selection | None | None | 39 | 0.8 ± 0.083 |
Mean and variance analysis | Standardized means visualization and Kruskal–Wallis test | H ≥ 46 and p with additional clear pattern on the standardized means plot. | 14 | 0.8184 ± 0.0524 |
Correlation graph analysis | Spearman correlation test | Significant ( test) differences between node degrees on correlation graphs. | 8 | 0.7763 ± 0.0602 |
Correlation graph analysis | Spearman correlation test | Nodes with no more then 10 correlation within each group. | 23 | 0.8462 ± 0.1027 |
Generalizedlinear model | MNLogit | Step-wise search | 23 | 0.8681 ± 0.0636 |
Mixed | Set intersection | Common parameters that can be found both in results of MNLogit and list of variables with few correlations. | 17 | 0.7921 ± 0.051 |
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Twardawa, M.; Formanowicz, P.; Formanowicz, D. Chronic Kidney Disease as a Cardiovascular Disorder—Tonometry Data Analyses. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12339. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912339
Twardawa M, Formanowicz P, Formanowicz D. Chronic Kidney Disease as a Cardiovascular Disorder—Tonometry Data Analyses. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12339. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912339
Chicago/Turabian StyleTwardawa, Mateusz, Piotr Formanowicz, and Dorota Formanowicz. 2022. "Chronic Kidney Disease as a Cardiovascular Disorder—Tonometry Data Analyses" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12339. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912339