Multi-Impacts of Spatial Self-Policing during COVID-19: Evidence from a Chinese University
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review on Self-Policing in Campus Management during COVID-19
2.1. Self-Policing for COVID-19 Prevention
2.2. Campus Lockdown Strategies in Chinese Universities
2.3. Negative Impacts of Campus Self-Policing on University Students
2.3.1. Impacts on the Social Aspects
2.3.2. Impacts on Spatial Aspects
2.3.3. Impacts on Mental Aspects
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Study Area
3.2. Background of Local Pandemics
3.3. Study Methods
3.3.1. Data Collection
3.3.2. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. What Were University Students’ Concerns Related to the Pandemic?
- University students talked about the COVID-19 pandemic on the university forum over the past 32 months;
- Though there were no new cases of confirmed infection in Hangzhou from April 2020 to October 2021, students still cared about the pandemic situations in the other cities, their hometowns, and related destinations;
- The frequency peak month was April 2022, when a nearby megacity—Shanghai—fell into a severe breakout, while no case was found in Hangzhou [50]. A total of 395 posts were created in this month, when panicked students discussed the accelerating epidemic crisis in Shanghai. They posted worries about the potential risks of pandemics spreading from Shanghai to Hangzhou. After Shanghai ended its lockdown in June, the keyword frequency dropped accordingly.
4.2. How University Students Reacted to the Epidemic Prevention Policies from the Hangzhou Government and Zhejiang University
4.3. How Did University Students’ Use of Campus Spaces Change in a Lockdown Campus Environment during COVID-19?
- The campus generally had a tight bond with the public neighborhoods before the pandemic, where urban public facilities and infrastructure like shopping malls, restaurants, cinemas, etc., enriched the on-campus life of university students.
- After campus lockdown and self-policing management, campus living spaces and services failed to meet the diverse campus life needs of hundreds of thousands of students, especially in eating and entertaining.
- One reason for the lower keyword frequency of studying spaces than living spaces on the school forum was that the widely used remote classrooms relieved academic loads on campus hardware facilities, which partially compromised the geographic barriers put in place by the campus mobility restrictions.
4.4. How Have University Students’ Emotional Conditions Changed in a Lockdown Campus Environment during COVID-19?
- The monthly “Happiness” frequency experienced a sharp increase from an average of fewer than 40 posts in a month before COVID-19 to nearly reaching 138 posts in January 2022. This shows an interesting trend for university students to express their happiness to other anonymous users on the forum during the pandemic. Especially during times such as the Chinese Spring Festival and graduation seasons, the online forum was full of greetings and congratulations from unknown students. Such an communication was not seen regularly before the pandemic.
- The monthly “Depression” frequency had a slow rise until August 2021, then started to jump in the following months. It peaked in March 2022, when university student users created 127 posts expressing painful, distressed, or depressed feelings.
- The monthly “Complaint” frequency fluctuated over an academic semester in cycles. The average number of complaints in a semester went up modestly.
- The monthly “Insomnia” frequency surged during COVID-19. Before the pandemic, a few students (1–3 posts monthly) talked about their sleeping problems with the others on CC98. However, we found more and more posts that mentioned poor sleeping conditions posted at midnight. This phenomenon arose in April 2022.
5. Discussion
5.1. Reflections on the Self-Policing Management on the University Campus
5.2. An Introverted Trend under the Circumstance of Self-Policing on Campus
5.3. Study Limitations and Future Plans
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
- Yuki, K.; Fujiogi, M.; Koutsogiannaki, S. COVID-19 pathophysiology: A review. Clin. Immunol. 2020, 215, 108427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, Y.; Watterston, J. The changes we need: Education post COVID-19. J. Educ. Chang. 2021, 22, 3–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allen, D.W. COVID-19 Lockdown Cost/Benefits: A Critical Assessment of the Literature. Int. J. Econ. Bus. 2021, 29, 1–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, H.-Y.; Chowdhury, R.; McFarlane, C.; Tripathy, P. Introduction: Rethinking urban density. Urban Geogr. 2020, 41, 1241–1246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McFarlane, C. De/re-densification. City 2020, 24, 314–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cagetti, M.G.; Cairoli, J.L.; Senna, A.; Campus, G. COVID-19 Outbreak in North Italy: An Overview on Dentistry. A Questionnaire Survey. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, T.; Finke, M.; Mulholland, B. Investor attention and advisor social media interaction. Appl. Econ. Lett. 2014, 22, 261–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Son, C.; Hegde, S.; Smith, A.; Wang, X.; Sasangohar, F. Effects of COVID-19 on College Students’ Mental Health in the United States: Interview Survey Study. J. Med. Internet Res. 2020, 22, e21279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, S.; Liu, M.; Li, Y.; Chung, J.E. Teens’ Social Media Engagement during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Time Series Examination of Posting and Emotion on Reddit. Int. J. Env. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capone, V.; Caso, D.; Donizzetti, A.R.; Procentese, F. University Student Mental Well-Being during COVID-19 Outbreak: What Are the Relationships between Information Seeking, Perceived Risk and Personal Resources Related to the Academic Context? Sustainability 2020, 12, 7039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raaper, R.; Brown, C. The COVID-19 pandemic and the dissolution of the university campus: Implications for student support practice. J. Prof. Cap. Community 2020, 5, 343–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gamage, K.A.A.; Wijesuriya, D.I.; Ekanayake, S.Y.; Rennie, A.E.W.; Lambert, C.G.; Gunawardhana, N. Online Delivery of Teaching and Laboratory Practices: Continuity of University Programmes during COVID-19 Pandemic. Educ. Sci. 2020, 10, 291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, B.; Zhou, S. Re-examining the role of attitude in information system acceptance: A model from the satisfaction–dissatisfaction perspective. Enterp. Inf. Syst. 2015, 10, 444–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Somerville, P. Understanding community policing. Polic. Int. J. Police Strateg. Manag. 2009, 32, 261–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leadbeater, C. The Self-Policing Society; Demos: London, UK, 1996; Volume 9. [Google Scholar]
- Laufs, J.; Waseem, Z. Policing in pandemics: A systematic review and best practices for police response to COVID-19. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 2020, 51, 101812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, H.; Hu, M.; Liu, S. The need to improve the laws and regulations relevant to the outbreak of COVID-19: What might be learned from China? J. Glob. Health 2020, 10, 0103128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wood, J.C. Self-Policing and the Policing of the Self: Violence, Protection and the Civilizing Bargain in Britain. Crime Hist. Sociétés 2003, 7, 109–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, Y. Collectivism, Political Control, and Gating in Chinese Cities. Urban Geogr. 2013, 27, 507–525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, J.; Zhang, P. China’s Public Health Policies in Response to COVID-19: From an “Authoritarian” Perspective. Front. Public Health 2021, 9, 756677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woc-Colburn, L.; Godinez, D. Lockdown as a public health measure. In COVID-19 Pandemic; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2022; pp. 133–136. [Google Scholar]
- Fu, H. Pandemic Control in China’s Gated Communities. In How COVID-19 Took Over the World: Lessons for the Future with Comparative Perspectives from Health, Politics, and Socio-Economics; Loh, C., Ed.; Hong Kong University Press: Hong Kong, China, 2022; Volume 9. [Google Scholar]
- Jessop, B. Liberalism, Neoliberalism, and Urban Governance: A State–Theoretical Perspective. Antipode 2002, 34, 452–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Viner, R.; Bonell, C.; Blakemore, S.-J.; Hargreaves, J.; Panovska-Griffiths, J. Schools should still be the last to close and first to open if there were any future lockdown. Bmj 2022, 367, o21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Borkowski, P.; Jażdżewska-Gutta, M.; Szmelter-Jarosz, A. Lockdowned: Everyday mobility changes in response to COVID-19. J. Transp. Geogr. 2021, 90, 102906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bray, D. Social Space and Governance in Urban China: The Danwei System from Origins to Reform; Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Z.; Mahmoudi, J.; Xiong, C. How social distancing, mobility, and preventive policies affect COVID-19 outcomes: Big data-driven evidence from the District of Columbia-Maryland-Virginia (DMV) megaregion. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0263820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birmingham, W.C.; Wadsworth, L.L.; Lassetter, J.H.; Graff, T.C.; Lauren, E.; Hung, M. COVID-19 lockdown: Impact on college students’ lives. J. Am. Coll. Health 2021, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, C.; Xiong, Y.; Wu, Z.; Li, J. Enclave-Reinforced Inequality during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from University Campus Lockdowns in Wuhan, China. Sustainability 2021, 13, 13100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leal Filho, W.; Wall, T.; Rayman-Bacchus, L.; Mifsud, M.; Pritchard, D.J.; Lovren, V.O.; Farinha, C.; Petrovic, D.S.; Balogun, A.-L. Impacts of COVID-19 and social isolation on academic staff and students at universities: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 1213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamada, K.; Nakamura, K. Leveraging the COVID-19 crisis to advance global sustainable universities: Re-creation of valuable higher education. In Higher Education’s Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Building a More Sustainable and Democratic Future; Bergan, S., Gallagher, T., Munck, R., van’t Land, H., Eds.; Council of Europe: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Nyashanu, M.; Simbanegavi, P.; Gibson, L. Exploring the impact of COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on informal settlements in Tshwane Gauteng Province, South Africa. Glob. Public Health 2020, 15, 1443–1453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mercier, M.; Vinchon, F.; Pichot, N.; Bonetto, E.; Bonnardel, N.; Girandola, F.; Lubart, T. COVID-19: A Boon or a Bane for Creativity? Front. Psychol. 2021, 11, 601150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, G.; Young, E.; Butler, I.; Coe, S. The Impact of Lockdown During the COVID-19 Outbreak on Dietary Habits in Various Population Groups: A Scoping Review. Front. Nutr. 2021, 8, 626432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leong Bin Abdullah, M.F.I.; Mansor, N.S.; Mohamad, M.A.; Teoh, S.H. Quality of life and associated factors among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2021, 11, e048446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schubert, C.; Shahbaz, S.; Ashraf, M.Z.; Zakar, R.; Fischer, F.; Zakar, M.Z. Psychosocial effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on university students: Understanding apprehensions through a phenomenographic approach. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0251641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williamson, H.; Murphy, K.; Sargeant, E.; McCarthy, M. The role of bounded-authority concerns in shaping citizens’ duty to obey authorities during COVID-19. Polic. Int. J. 2022, 45, 169–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pizarro-Ruiz, J.P.; Ordóñez-Camblor, N. Effects of COVID-19 confinement on the mental health of children and adolescents in Spain. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 11713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xia, B.; Wu, K.; Guo, P.; Sun, Y.; Wu, J.; Xu, J.; Wang, S. Multidisciplinary Innovation Adaptability of Campus Spatial Organization: From a Network Perspective. SAGE Open 2022, 12, 215824402210799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ten Sights of Zijingang Campus. Available online: https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/2018/0522/c19948a812720/page.htm (accessed on 22 May 2018).
- Qian, J. Deciphering the Prevalence of Neighborhood Enclosure Amidst Post-1949 Chinese Cities. J. Plan. Lit. 2013, 29, 3–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, X.; Hong, W.; Pan, X.; Lu, G.; Wei, X. SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant: Characteristics and prevention. MedComm 2021, 2, 838–845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Chen, Y. China can prepare to end its zero-COVID policy. Nat. Med. 2022, 28, 1104–1105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dominguez, S. Getting Ahead: Social Mobility, Public Housing, and Immigrant Networks; New York University Press: New York, NY, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Chang, K.-C.; Hobbs, W.R.; Roberts, M.E.; Steinert-Threlkeld, Z.C. COVID-19 increased censorship circumvention and access to sensitive topics in China. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2022, 119, e2102818119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yi, X.; Bertino, E.; Vaidya, J.; Xing, C. Private Searching on Streaming Data Based on Keyword Frequency. IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput. 2014, 11, 155–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, S.; Goldberg, S.B.; Lin, D.; Qiao, S.; Operario, D. Psychiatric symptoms, risk, and protective factors among university students in quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Glob. Health 2021, 17, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahn, H.-I.; Spangler, W.S. Sales Prediction with Social Media Analysis. In Proceedings of the 2014 Annual SRII Global Conference, San Jose, CA, USA, 23–25 April 2014; pp. 213–222. [Google Scholar]
- Feldman, R.; Dagan, I.; Hirsh, H. Mining text using keyword distributions. J. Intell. Inf. Syst. 1998, 10, 281–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, L. Adjusted control rate closely associated with the epidemiologic evolution of the recent COVID-19 wave in Shanghai, with 94.3% of all new cases being asymptomatic on first diagnosis. J. Infect. 2022; in press. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wellman, B.; Quan-Haase, A.; Boase, J.; Chen, W.; Hampton, K.; Díaz, I.; Miyata, K. The Social Affordances of the Internet for Networked Individualism. J. Comput.-Mediat. Commun. 2003, 8, JCMC834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Q.; An, Z.; Liu, Y.; Ying, W.; Zhao, P. Smartphone-based services, perceived accessibility, and transport inequity during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-lagged panel study. Transp. Res. D Transp. Env. 2021, 97, 102941. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rick, T.; Jonathan, J.; Tyler, T.R. Bounded authority: Expanding “appropriate” police behavior beyond procedural justice. Law Hum. Behav. 2018, 42, 280–293. [Google Scholar]
Discussion Topics | Keywords in the Post Titles |
---|---|
Pandemic situations | “Epidemic (疫情)” |
“COVID-19 (新冠)” | |
“Omicron (奥密克戎)” | |
Epidemic prevention policies | “Health code (健康码)” 1 |
“School code (蓝码)” 2 | |
“Daily health information update (打卡)” 3 | |
“Nucleic acid detection (核酸检测)” | |
“Prevention policy (防疫政策)” | |
“Quarantine (隔离)” 4 | |
Campus access control | “Enter campus (进校)” |
“Leave campus (离校)” | |
“Lockdown (封校)” 5 | |
“End lockdown (解封)” | |
Campus space use 6 | “Dormitory (寝室)” |
“Canteen (食堂)” | |
“Classroom (教室)” | |
“Library (图书馆)” | |
“Online” 7 | |
Emotional conditions | “Happiness (开心)” 8 |
“Depression (抑郁)” 9 | |
“Complaint (吐槽)” | |
“Insomnia (失眠)” |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sun, Y.; Wang, Z.; Qiu, Z.; Zhou, C. Multi-Impacts of Spatial Self-Policing during COVID-19: Evidence from a Chinese University. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912172
Sun Y, Wang Z, Qiu Z, Zhou C. Multi-Impacts of Spatial Self-Policing during COVID-19: Evidence from a Chinese University. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912172
Chicago/Turabian StyleSun, Yuan, Zhu Wang, Zhi Qiu, and Congyue Zhou. 2022. "Multi-Impacts of Spatial Self-Policing during COVID-19: Evidence from a Chinese University" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12172. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912172