Scarcity Value Assessment of Ecosystem Services Based on Changes in Supply and Demand: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta City Cluster, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theory and Data Sources
2.1. Theoretical Framework and Technical Route
2.2. Study Area
2.3. Data Source
3. Methodology
3.1. Assessing the Theoretical Value of Ecosystem Services
3.1.1. The Ecosystem Service Value Coefficients
3.1.2. The Per-Unit Value of Ecosystem Services
3.1.3. The Theoretical Value of Ecosystem Services
3.2. Assessing the Scarcity Value of Ecosystem Services
3.2.1. Scarcity Factor Adjustment for Ecosystem Services
3.2.2. Price Elasticity of Ecosystem Services with a Change in the Scarcity Value
3.2.3. Quantifying Changes in Demand for Ecosystem Services
3.2.4. Scenario Analysis for the Scarcity Value of Ecosystem Services
4. Results
4.1. Spatial Distribution Characteristics of the ESTV
4.2. Spatial Distribution Characteristics of ESSV
5. Discussion
5.1. The Effect of Ecosystem Services Scarcity
5.2. Drivers of the Scarcity of Ecosystem Services
5.3. Insights for Sustainable Urban Development
5.4. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- United Nations. Available online: https://www.un.org/en/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005; pp. 4–85. [Google Scholar]
- Dawson, N.; Martin, A. Assessing the Contribution of Ecosystem Services to Human Wellbeing: A Disaggregated Study in Western Rwanda. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 117, 62–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tao, Y.; Wang, H.N.; Ou, W.X.; Guo, J. A Land-cover-based Approach to Assessing Ecosystem Services Supply and Demand Dynamics in the Rapidly Urbanizing Yangtze River Delta Region. Land Use Policy 2018, 72, 250–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Long, H.L.; Liu, Y.Q.; Hou, X.G.; Li, T.T.; Li, Y.R. Effects of land use transitions due to rapid urbanization on ecosystem services: Implications for urban planning in the new developing area of China. Habitat Int. 2014, 44, 536–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bryan, B.A.; Ye, Y.Q.; Zhang, J.E.; Connor, J.D. Land-use change impacts on ecosystem services value: Incorporating the scarcity effects of supply and demand dynamics. Ecosyst. Serv. 2018, 32, 144–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, Z.G.; Sun, Z.S.; Tian, Y.J.; Zhong, J.L.; Yang, W.N. Impact of Land Use/Cover Change on Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration Ecosystem Services Value: Temporal-Spatial Patterns and Cold/Hot Spots Ecosystem Services Value Change Brought by Urbanization. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IPCC—Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Available online: https://www.ipcc.ch/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Bloom, D.E.; Canning, D.; Fink, G. Urbanization and the wealth of nations. Science 2008, 319, 772–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, J.G. Making the case for landscape ecology: An effective approach to urban sustainability. Landsc. J. 2008, 27, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anhui Forestry Bureau. Available online: https://lyj.ah.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Shanghai Forestry Bureau. Available online: https://lhsr.sh.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Zhejiang Forestry Bureau. Available online: http://lyj.zj.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Jiangsu Forestry Bureau. EB/OL. Available online: http://lyj.jiangsu.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Yang, Y. Study on Green Development Model of Global Bay Areas under Background of Win-win Pattern of Economy and Ecology. China Acad. J. Electron. Publ. House 2020, 35, 322–330. [Google Scholar]
- Burkhard, B.; Maes, J. Introduction. In Mapping Ecosystem Services, 1st ed.; Burkhard, B., Maes, J., Eds.; Pensoft Publishers: Sofia, Bulgaria, 2017; pp. 23–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ahammad, R.; Stacey, N.; Sunderland, T. Analysis of forest-related policies for supporting ecosystem services-based forest management in Bangladesh. Ecosyst. Serv. 2021, 48, 101235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, M.C.; Yang, L.; Min, Q.W. Establishment of an eco-compensation fund based on eco-services consumption. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 211, 306–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wen, W.J.; Xu, G.; Wang, X.J. Spatial transferring of ecosystem services and property rights allocation of ecological compensation. Front Earth Sci. 2011, 5, 280–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- May, J.; Hobbs, R.J.; Valentine, L.E. Are offsets effective? An evaluation of recent environmental offsets in Western Australia. Biol. Conserv. 2017, 206, 249–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, G.P.; Liu, S.S. 40 Years of Ecological Compensation in China: Policy Evolution and Theoretical Logic. J. Xi’an Jiaotong Univ. Soc. Sci. 2018, 38, 101–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, D. The Institutional Change of China’s Eco-Compensation. Ecol. Econ. 2017, 33, 135–139. [Google Scholar]
- Eigenbrod, F.; Bell, V.A.; Davies, H.N.; Heinemeyer, A.; Armsworth, P.R.; Gaston, K.J. The impact of projected increases in urbanization on ecosystem services. Proc. R. Soc. B 2011, 278, 3201–3208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yahdjian, L.; Sala, O.E.; Havstad, K.M. Rangeland ecosystem services: Shifting focus from supply to reconciling supply and demand. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2015, 13, 44–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnett, H.J.; Morse, C. Scarcity and Growth: The Economics of Natural Resource Availability; RFF Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- TEEB. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundations; Earthscan: London, UK; Washington, DC, USA, 2010; pp. 183–239. [Google Scholar]
- Gans, B.; Bagstad, K.J.; Voigt, B.; Villa, F. Modeling the effects of urban expansion on natural capital stocks and ecosystem service flows: A case study in the Puget Sound. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2016, 149, 31–42. [Google Scholar]
- Batabyal, A.A.; Kahn, J.R.; O’Neill, R.V. On the scarcity value of ecosystem services. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 2003, 46, 334–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandhu, H.; Waterhouse, B.; Boyer, S.; Wratten, S. Scarcity of ecosystem services: An experimental manipulation of declining pollination rates and its economic consequences for agriculture. PeerJ 2016, 4, e2099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ouyang, Z.Y.; Zhu, C.Q.; Yang, G.B.; Xu, W.J.; Zheng, H.; Zhang, Y.; Xiao, Y. Gross ecosystem product: Concept, accounting framework and case study. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2013, 33, 6747–6761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xue, M.; Ma, S. Optimized land-use scheme based on ecosystem service value: Case study of Taiyuan, China. J. Urban Plan. Dev. 2018, 144, 04018016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, H.J. Complementing conventional environmental impact assessments of tourism with ecosystem service valuation: A case study of the Wulingyuan Scenic Area, China. Ecosyst. Serv. 2020, 43, 101100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naime, J.; Mora, F.; Sánchez-Martínez, M.; Arreolab, F.; Balvanerabc, P. Economic valuation of ecosystem services from secondary tropical forests: Trade-offs and implications for policy making. For. Ecol. Manag. 2020, 473, 118294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Srikanta, S.; Sandeep, B.; Shahid, R.; Saikat, K.P.; Somnath, S.A. Estimating global ecosystem service values and its response to land surface dynamics during 1995–2015. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 223, 115–131. [Google Scholar]
- Costanza, R.; de Groot, R.; Sutton, P.; van der Ploeg, S.; Anderson, S.J.; Kubiszewski, I.; Farber, S.; Turner, R.K. Changes in the global value of ecosystem services. Global Environ. Chang. 2014, 26, 152–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Groot, R.S.; Wilson, M.A.; Boumans, R.M.J. A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol. Econ. 2002, 41, 393–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arowolo, A.O.; Deng, X.Z.; Olatunji, O.A.; Obayelu, A.E. Assessing changes in the value of ecosystem services in response to land-use/land-cover dynamics in Nigeria. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 636, 597–609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barbier, E. The Policy Challenges for the Green Economy and Sustainable Economic Development. Nat. Resour. Forum 2011, 35, 233–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, Y.; Cheng, C.X.; Liu, X.H.; Zhang, F.; Li, Z.H.; Lu, S.Q. An ecosystem services value assessment of land-use change in Chengdu: Based on a modification of scarcity factor. Phys. Chem. Earth 2019, 110, 157–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, Y.; Feng, C.C.; Yu, Q.R.; Guo, L. Integrating supply and demand factors for estimating ecosystem services scarcity value and its response to urbanization in typical mountainous and hilly regions of south China. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 796, 149032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, Q.R.; Feng, C.C.; Shi, Y.; Guo, L. Spatiotemporal interaction between ecosystem services and urbanization in China: Incorporating the scarcity effects. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 317, 128392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strand, J.; Soares-Filho, B.; Costa, M.H.; Oliveira, U.; Ribeiro, S.C.; Pires, G.F.; Oliveira, A.; Rajão, R.; May, P.; van der Hoff, R.; et al. Spatially explicit valuation of the Brazilian Amazon Forest’s Ecosystem Services. Nat. Sustain. 2018, 1, 657–664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thapa, S.; Wang, L.; Koirala, A.; Shrestha, S.; Aye, W.N. Valuation of Ecosystem Services from an Important Wetland of Nepal: A Study from Begnas Watershed System. Wetlands 2020, 40, 1071–1083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fu, B.J.; Zhang, L.W. Land-use change and ecosystem services: Concepts, methods and progress. Prog. Geogr. 2014, 33, 441–446. [Google Scholar]
- Huang, L.; He, C.; Wang, B. Study on the spatial changes concerning ecosystem services value in Lhasa River Basin, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 29, 7827–7843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fisher, B.; Turner, R.K.; Morling, P. Defining and classifying ecosystem services for decision making. Ecol. Econ. 2009, 68, 643–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, X.M.; Liu, Y.; Ren, Y.M.; Zhou, Y.B. Evaluation and Analysis of Ecosystem Services Value in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region Based on Demand Zoning. Acta Sci. Nat. Univ. Pekin. 2021, 57, 173–180. [Google Scholar]
- National Bureau of Statistics. Available online: http://www.stats.gov.cn (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Shanghai Bureau of Statistics. Available online: https://tjj.sh.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Zhejiang Provincial Bureau of Statistics. Available online: http://tjj.zj.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Anhui Provincial Bureau of Statistics. Available online: http://tjj.ah.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Jiangsu Provincial Bureau of Statistics. Available online: http://stats.jiangsu.gov.cn/ (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- CAS, RESCD (Chinese Academy of Sciences). (2021). Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research. Data Center of Resources and Environment Science. EB/OL. Available online: http://www.resdc.cn/ (accessed on 1 March 2021).
- Costanza, R.; d Arge, R.; de Groot, R.; Farber, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, K.; Naeem, S.; ONeill, R.V.; Paruelo, J.; et al. The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 1997, 387, 256–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xie, G.D.; Zhen, L.; Lu, C.X.; Xiao, Y.; Chen, C. Expert knowledge based valuation method of ecosystem services in China. J. Nat. Res. 2008, 23, 911–919. [Google Scholar]
- Xie, G.D.; Lu, C.X.; Leng, Y.F.; Zheng, D.; Li, S.C. Ecological assets valuation of the Tibetan Plateau. J. Nat. Res. 2003, 18, 189–196. [Google Scholar]
- Xie, G.D.; Xiao, Y.; Zhen, L.; Lu, C.X. Study on ecosystem services value of food production in China. Chin. J. Eco-Agric. 2005, 13, 10–13. [Google Scholar]
- Tang, X.M.; Chen, B.M.; Lu, Q.B.; Han, F. The ecological location correction of ecosystem service value: A case study of Beijing city. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2010, 30, 3526–3535. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, V.K. Measuring natural resource scarcity: Theory and practice. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 1978, 5, 150–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Freeman, A.M., III; Herriges, J.A.; Kling, C.L. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values: Theory and Methods; Routledge: London, UK, 2014; pp. 40–110. [Google Scholar]
- Elmqvist, T.; Fragkias, M.; Goodness, J.; Güneralp, B.; Marcotullio, P.J.; McDonald, R.I.; Parnell, S.; Schewenius, M.; Sendstad, M.; Seto, K.C.; et al. Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities: A Global Assessment: A Part of the Cities and Biodiversity Outlook Project; Springer Open: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2013; pp. 57–62. [Google Scholar]
- Haase, D.; Larondelle, N.; Andersson, E.; Artmann, M.; Borgstrom, S.; Breuste, J.; Gomez-Baggethun, E.; Gren, Å.; Hamstead, Z.; Hansen, R.; et al. A quantitative review of urban ecosystem service assessments: Concepts, models, and implementation. Ambio 2014, 43, 413–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolff, S.; Schulp, C.J.E.; Kastner, T.; Verburg, P.H. Quantifying spatial variation in ecosystem services demand: A global mapping approach. Ecol. Econ. 2017, 136, 14–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gans, J.; King, S.; Mankiw, N.G. Principles of Microeconomics; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Mankiw, N.G.; Weinzierl, M. An Exploration of Optimal Stabilization Policy, NBER Working Papers 17029; National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2011; pp. 209–272. [Google Scholar]
- Kolstad, C. Intermediate Environmental Economics, International Edition; OUP Catalogue: Oxford, UK, 2011; pp. 102–122. [Google Scholar]
- Daw, T.M.; Hicks, C.C.; Brown, K.; Chaigneau, T.; Januchowski-Hartley, F.A.; Cheung, W.W.; Rosendo, B.; Crona, B.; Coulthard, S.; Sandbrook, C.; et al. ElasticitFarleyy in ecosystem services: Exploring the variable relationship between ecosystems and human well-being. Ecol. Soc. 2016, 21, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drupp, M.A. Limits to substitution between ecosystem services and manufactured goods and implications for social discounting. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2018, 69, 135–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farley, J.; Schmitt Filho, A.; Burke, M.; Farr, M. Extending market allocation to ecosystem services: Moral and practical implications on a full and unequal planet. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 117, 244–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Sullivan, A.; Sheffrin, S.M. Economics: Principles in Action; Pearson/Prentice Hall: Boston, MA, USA, 2003; pp. 64–70. [Google Scholar]
- Rao, Y.X.; Zhou, M.; Ou, G.L.; Dai, D.Y.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, Z.; Nie, X.; Yang, C. Integrating ecosystem services value for sustainable land-use management in semi-arid region. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 186, 662–672. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perloff, J.M. Microeconomics: Theory & Applications with Calculus; Pearson/Addison-Wesley: Boston, MA, USA, 2008; pp. 93–125. [Google Scholar]
- Cortinovis, C.; Geneletti, D. A framework to explore the effects of urban planning decisions on regulating ecosystem services in cities. Ecosyst. Serv. 2019, 38, 100946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, B.J.; Chen, D.X.; Wu, S.H.; Zhou, S.L.; Wang, T.; Chen, H. Spatio-temporal assessment of urbanization impacts on ES: Case study of Nanjing City, China. Ecol. Indic. 2016, 71, 416–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, D.A.; Jackson, B.M.; Clothier, B.E.; Dominati, E.J.; Marchant, S.C.; Cooper, D.M.; Bristow, K.L. Advances in soil ES: Concepts, models, and applications for earth system life support. Vadose Zone J. 2013, 12, 4949–4960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, S.; Li, G.; Fang, C. Urbanization, economic growth, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence from countries with different income levels. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 81, 2144–2159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martellozzo, F.; Amato, F.; Murgante, B.; Clarke, K.C. Modelling the impact of urban growth on agriculture and natural land in Italy to 2030. Appl. Geogr. 2018, 91, 156–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yuan, Y.J.; Wu, S.H.; Yu, Y.N.; Tong, G.J.; Mo, L.J.; Yan, D.H.; Li, F.F. Spatiotemporal interaction between ES and urbanization: Case study of Nanjing City, China. Ecol. Indic. 2018, 95, 917–929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shiferaw, H.; Bewket, W.; Alamirew, T.; Zeleke, G.; Teketay, D.; Bekele, K.; Schaffner, U.; Eckert, S. Implications of land use/land cover dynamics and Prosopis invasion on ecosystem service values in Afar Region, Ethiopia. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 675, 354–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vierikko, K.; Yli-Pelkonen, V. Seasonality in recreation supply and demand in an urban lake ecosystem in Finland. Urban Ecosyst. 2019, 22, 769–783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bhatti, S.S.; Tripathi, N.K.; Nagai, M.; Nitivattananon, V. Spatial interrelationships of quality of life with land use/land cover, demography and urbanization. Soc. Indic. Res. 2017, 132, 1193–1216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, L.; Li, M. Community life regression under the background of rapid urbanization. In Building Resilient Cities in China: The Nexus between Planning and Science; Chen, X., Pan, Q., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2015; pp. 63–73. [Google Scholar]
- Rai, R.K.; Shyamsundar, P.; Nepal, M.; Bhatta, L.D. Differences in demand for watershed services: Understanding preferences through a choice experiment in the Koshi Basin of Nepal. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 119, 274–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolff, S.; Schulp, C.J.E.; Verburg, P.H. Mapping ecosystem services demand: A review of current research and future perspectives. Ecol. Indic. 2015, 55, 159–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Types of Ecosystem Services | Spatial Relationships between SPA and SBA |
---|---|
Gas Regulation | Omni-directional |
Climate Regulation | Omni-directional |
Biodiversity Protection | Omni-directional |
Water Containment | Directional |
Land Use Categories | Ecosystem Services | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary Categories | Secondary Categories | Gas Regulation | Climate Regulation | Water Containment | Biodiversity Protection | Sum |
Arable land | Dry land | 11.26 | 6.05 | 4.54 | 2.19 | 24.04 |
Watered land | 13.51 | 9.08 | 3.63 | 1.31 | 27.53 | |
Paddy field | 22.52 | 12.10 | 2.27 | 1.09 | 37.98 | |
Forestland | Wooded land | 78.84 | 18.36 | 24.21 | 10.03 | 131.44 |
Shrubland | 63.07 | 16.52 | 31.47 | 8.03 | 119.09 | |
Open woodland | 47.30 | 12.85 | 33.96 | 6.02 | 100.13 | |
Other wooded land | 39.42 | 9.18 | 36.31 | 5.02 | 89.93 | |
Grassland | High cover | 18.02 | 6.12 | 6.05 | 3.35 | 33.54 |
Medium cover | 14.42 | 4.90 | 7.26 | 2.68 | 29.26 | |
Low cover | 9.01 | 3.06 | 7.87 | 1.68 | 21.62 | |
Water bodies | Water bodies | 0.00 | 3.13 | 154.16 | 7.66 | 164.95 |
Desert | Desert | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.23 | 1.05 | 1.28 |
Construction land | Construction land | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0 |
Land Use Categories | Ecosystem Services | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Primary Categories | Secondary Categories | Gas Regulation | Climate Regulation | Water Containment | Biodiversity Protection | Sum |
Arable land | Dry land | 9.60 | 5.16 | 3.87 | 1.86 | 20.49 |
Watered land | 11.52 | 7.73 | 3.09 | 1.12 | 23.46 | |
Paddy field | 19.19 | 10.31 | 1.93 | 0.93 | 32.36 | |
Forestland | Wooded land | 67.18 | 15.64 | 20.63 | 8.55 | 112 |
Shrubland | 53.75 | 14.08 | 26.82 | 6.84 | 101.49 | |
Open woodland | 40.31 | 10.95 | 28.94 | 5.13 | 85.33 | |
Open woodland | 33.59 | 7.82 | 30.94 | 4.28 | 76.63 | |
Grassland | High cover | 15.36 | 5.21 | 5.16 | 2.86 | 28.59 |
Medium cover | 12.28 | 4.17 | 6.19 | 2.29 | 24.93 | |
Low cover | 7.68 | 2.61 | 6.70 | 1.43 | 18.42 | |
Water bodies | Water bodies | 0.00 | 2.67 | 131.37 | 6.53 | 140.57 |
Desert | Desert | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.19 | 0.89 | 1.08 |
Construction land | Construction land | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0 |
Scenario Setting | Ecosystem Service Value | Elasticity Factor | Relative Change in Scarcity Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Supply | Demand | Supply | Supply | ||
Scenario 1 | Theoretical value | / | / | 0 | 0 |
Scenario 2 | Scarcity value | 0.4 | 1.6 | 0.5 | 0.8 |
Ecosystem Services | Income Elasticity Functions | Variable Description |
---|---|---|
Gas Regulation | : Per capita GDP of the assessment unit : Coefficient of income elasticity of demand | |
Climate Regulation | ||
Biodiversity Protection | ||
Water Containment |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zhou, X.; Yang, L.; Gu, X.; Zhang, L.; Li, L. Scarcity Value Assessment of Ecosystem Services Based on Changes in Supply and Demand: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta City Cluster, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11999. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911999
Zhou X, Yang L, Gu X, Zhang L, Li L. Scarcity Value Assessment of Ecosystem Services Based on Changes in Supply and Demand: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta City Cluster, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):11999. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911999
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhou, Xiaoping, Lan Yang, Xiaokun Gu, Lufa Zhang, and Li Li. 2022. "Scarcity Value Assessment of Ecosystem Services Based on Changes in Supply and Demand: A Case Study of the Yangtze River Delta City Cluster, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 11999. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911999