1. Introduction
Effective management of coral reefs requires strategies that help to protect coral reefs from damage due to cumulative human activity. Over the past few decades, the global biodiversity of coral reefs has been subject to extensive degradation [
1,
2]. In Malaysia, coral reef damage increases as a result of the natural environment and anthropogenic stress [
3].
Coral reefs have important functions in marine ecosystems as they are the main structure and substrate and provide shelter for various biota and organisms [
4]. In addition, coral reefs have other ecological, economic and social benefits. Regarding their ecological functions, coral reefs serve as life support systems, excellent sources of biodiversity, and coastal barriers; they also prevent global warming [
5]. From an economic aspect, coral reefs are a food source, a form of medicinal and cosmetic ingredients, tourism objects, means of livelihood, and cultivation resources [
1,
5]. Regarding their social functions, coral reefs not only support educational activities and research activities but also become recreational facilities for people in general [
5].
Despite the numerous functions and benefits of coral reefs, these underwater ecosystems are imperiled throughout the world. The causes of damage to coral reefs in each location are very diverse. The following table presents the causes of coral reef damage and descriptions of the aims of vulnerability analysis taken from several studies (
Table 1 and
Table 2).
Employing the results of vulnerability analysis as a consideration in decision making gives several advantages, for example, it is relatively inexpensive and easy. Besides, the results can be regularly updated. Updating the results will reduce the risks of the previous vulnerability pattern and reveal the variable which needs more protection [
9]. Moreover, it can be used to analyze whether a system is vulnerable or unable to cope with adverse effects. Vulnerability analysis on how to reduce risk effectively can be carried out to gain an understanding of the environment and to prioritize limited resources in response to coral reef damage [
12]. The results of vulnerability analysis are useful for formulating approaches and concepts such as joint decision making, empowerment, and promotion [
24]. Besides, vulnerability analysis is helpful for planning and is very significant for the development of reliable management policies [
25].
Therefore, in the present study, vulnerability analysis of coral reefs in relation to coastal ecotourism is conducted to protect the functions of coral reefs and to anticipate future pressures and causes of damage. This study aims to (1) analyze the vulnerability index of coral reefs and the sensitivity of indicators that cause vulnerability, and (2) analyze the adaptive capacity related to the vulnerability of coral reefs.
5. Discussion
The results of the analysis indicate that the vulnerability index of the environmental condition dimension is classified as “quite vulnerable.” This is supported by the results of research from Luthfi, Rahmadita, and Setyohadi [
4], which states that the range of live coral cover is 6.94%–42.4%, and it is classified as highly damaged. There is a very high percentage of dead coral in this area (80.76%), even though this research site is the only nature reserve in Malang Regency and has a coral reef area of less than 10 ha. The most sensitive indicators or attributes which are associated with vulnerability are coral reef cover and forest cover protection, which are from the environmental condition dimension.
Wilson et al. [
10] explained that deforestation can cause sedimentation in the waters where coral reefs are situated. Sedimentation in coral reef areas leads to vulnerability in the environmental conditions dimension. The research results of Riniwati [
27] showed that the conversion of protected forest into tourism facilities and infrastructure has caused ecological and economic loss, and massive ecological recovery is required. Fishery production has also decreased due to the sedimentation of saltwater. It is suggested that ecotourism should be considered for tourism development instead of mass tourism. According to Tessema and Simane [
13], the higher the vulnerability level is, the lower the adaptive capacity is. Similar to the environmental condition dimension, the adaptive capacity of the coral reef cover is low. Nienaber, Hofeditz, and Romeike [
28] explained that elevation, land cover, vegetation cover, distance to water source, distance to roads, distance to recreation areas, and land management categories are environmental variables that can potentially affect species adaptation. Mangrove forest cover has the highest adaptive capacity. There is a tourist spot called the Clungup Mangrove Conservation Area at the research site which focuses on mangrove forest conservation. Thus, the adaptive capacity of mangrove cover in this study area is high.
In addition, the vulnerability index of the fishing port dimension is classified as “quite vulnerable.” The most sensitive indicator or attribute which causes vulnerability is the distance from fishing vessel channels. This result indicates that the adaptive capacity of the distance from fishing vessel channels is lower than the distance from the fishing port location. The existence of fishing ports is a threat to the coral reef surrounding the port. The threat can be in the form of physical and non-physical disturbances related to human activities near the port. In relation to coral reef existence in the future, in [
29,
30] it was explained that the degradation trend of local coral reefs caused by adverse human activities can be reduced or recovered. Using the results of the vulnerability analysis as a consideration in decision making is beneficial, since it is inexpensive and easy [
9]. Determining the distance from the coral reef to the fishing ports is considered to be easier than determining the distance from fishing vessel channels, according to respondents’ answers. Therefore, strong law enforcement is needed, so that there is no violation of the provisions of the fishing vessel channels.
The next vulnerability index dimension is the fishing area, which was classified as “quite vulnerable.” The most sensitive attribute is the distance from the fishing area, since its leverage is the highest. In other words, the distance from the fishing area has the potential to cause coral reef vulnerability. Magris, Grech, and Pressey [
1] and Praveena, Siraj, and Aris [
3] explained that the pressure on coral reefs is caused by destructive fishing. Therefore, the distance from the fishing area must be managed properly. Based on the adaptation capacity, persuading the fishermen to stop catching fish in the coral reef area is easier than determining the fishing distance from the coral reef location.
The pressure on coral reefs from fishing activities is seen from the distance of a coral reef to the fishing location (fishing ground). The increases in population and in market demand for fish have caused uncontrolled fishing activities affecting the fish habitat and stocks. As explained by [
31,
32], all forms of local pressure, overfishing, and destructive fishing are kinds of threats that are commonly spread, and these threats have affected more than 55% of coral reefs around the world.
Another vulnerability index dimension is tourism management, which is less vulnerable due to the excellent community involvement in managing ecotourism at the research site. Community involvement is essential for managing ecotourism. This statement is supported by a study from Praveena, Siraj, and Aris [
3], which explained that establishing a legal system, employing science-based management, and involving the community can reduce threats, damage, and risks to coral reefs. The communities at the research site have low awareness of conservation and ecological functions due to poverty and unemployment. In fact, they realize the need for conservation and ideal ecological function, but their economic index causes them to put aside the conservation motive. According to Jacqueline and Coyle-Shapiro [
33], public participation has a positive effect on the program or activity. Meanwhile political-based community participation will interfere with activity [
34]. Long-term public policy funds, continuous examination, assessment, and changes to policy strategies following the production of new information and data are crucial [
35]. The party in charge must retain the natural resources and anthropic culture and heritage of the tourist spot, and pay attention to management in terms of environmental protection, waste management, use of energy sources, and the sustainability of the area [
36]. Higher participation can lead to the dissemination of organizational strategies and the improvement of policy effectiveness [
37]. Direct and indirect, spoken and written, horizontal and vertical, and formal and informal approaches contribute to smooth and effective communication [
38]. According to Riniwati et al. [
39], ecotourism management in the Malang Regency coastal area needs improvement as follows: attendance at meetings, group participation in discussions, involvement in physical activities, and willingness to contribute or donate. The participation of informal institutions in ecotourism management can be increased by giving equal responsibility, freedom in decision making, authority in proposing ideas and compulsions with positive aims, for example, imposing ideas and demanding participation in discussions and other activities. According to the research results of Riniwati et al [
40], the improvement of human resources performance related to ability, motivation, and opportunities is important. A greater level of community participation is correlated with the increasing use of mitigation techniques and choices. Planning orientation helps to determine the level of community participation [
41]. The dimension of community participation has the highest level of vulnerability in mangrove conservation [
42].
Regarding the vulnerability index for tourism attractions, the result indicates that this dimension is classified as “less vulnerable.” The most sensitive indicator for tourism attractions is diving. Diving can put coral reefs in danger. Inappropriate management and irresponsible tourists cause damage to coral reefs. This statement is supported by the research results from Handriana and Ambara [
43], which show that many factors affect responsible behavior in the environment such as travel quality, visitor perceptions, destination image, and satisfaction. In order to increase visitor satisfaction, ecotourism management must improve the standard of tourist attributes in terms of aspects such as accessibility, attractions, and activities for visitors as well as maintenance of the surrounding environment which protects the ecosystem. According to Adeleke [
44], female residents participate more in the Kwazulu-Natal protected area than males. Hence recruiting female workers may give more benefits.
The vulnerability index of the socio-economic conditions and population is classified as “less vulnerable.” The indicator of the socio-economic and population dimension that needs to considered is “the economic source from the forestry sector.” The adaptive capacity of the economic source from the forestry sector relates to the socio-economic conditions of the surrounding community which requires income and a certain mentality from the formal authorities. If the government performs its role well, it will become a strong mediator towards achieving blue economy-based community empowerment [
45].
The vulnerability index for aquaculture dimension is classified as “less vulnerable.” In order to maintain the sustainability of coral reef ecotourism, it is important to consider the most sensitive attribute which increases the vulnerability of the aquaculture dimension—the distance of aquaculture to the coral reef area. Thus, it is necessary to continually increase cultivators’ compliance in determining the locations of aquaculture to prevent coral reef damage and vulnerability.
Lastly, the vulnerability index of coastal settlements is classified as “less vulnerable.” The indicator of the coastal settlement dimension that needs to be considered is “coral reef distance from the coastline,” because it has the highest leverage. The high sensitivity of the coral reef distance from the coastline makes its adaptive capacity low.
The following are some efforts that can reduce damage, threats, and risks to the vulnerability of coral reefs: (1) conservation through policy, legislation, and educational and economic instruments [
10]; (2) mitigation and adaptation to eliminate the sources of threats [
23]; (3) potential actions that can minimize threats in other places (for example, moving housing development to nearby areas); (4) developing the understanding of conservation actions to improve the anticipation of the positive and negative consequences of each action, to make conservation planning more effective [
46]; (5) the development of a community-based participatory management approach based on local knowledge and wisdom [
13].
Several studies provide the following recommendations related to ecotourism management. The establishment of an Ecotourism Management Triangle (EMT) could be an alternative to build a sustainable ecotourism management system. According to Wanie [
47], EMTs include World Ecotourism Sites (WESS), Standardized Indicators for Sustainable Ecotourism (SISE), and an Ecotourism Experts Support System (EESS). All management elements including the local community should be involved in the decision making process so that the management of ecotourism can run better [
48]. In a holistic way, ecotourism management is able to improve social justice and reduce inequality through a combination of community-based tourism and pro-poor tourism [
49]. The results of the analysis show that the involvement of private managers (investors) has no significant effect on the success of ecotourism. On the other hand, the involvement of one of the local or international NGOs (Non Government Organizations) affects the success of ecotourism. However the management will not run well if both parties are involved [
50]. The volunteer-based tourism program has high potential to provide environmental, cultural, and educational sustainability, financial security, business risk management strategies, volunteer satisfaction, and conservational benefits in the management of local destinations [
51]. Four alternative ecotourism development strategies have been proposed: dissemination, optimization, strengthening, and reformation. Moreover, tourism businesses have difficulty surviving due to corruption within the government, obstacles in logistics fulfillment, unconnected management systems, and inadequate human resources [
52]. Building a non-formal educational institution could improve the resilience or sustainability of tourism industry development [
53]. Community participation is considered one of the main factors in natural resource conservation as it involves the local community [
54]. Community participation is able to strengthen forest conservation, although there is a negative relationship between the economic index level and forest conservation support [
55]. Failure to improve the community’s standard of living is due to the neglect of the role of the local community in managing the local area and involvement of the community in the decision-making process. Moreover, the private sector only pays attention to company profits without considering the local communities [
56].