Next Article in Journal
Ultrafine Co-Species Interspersed g-C3N4 Nanosheets and Graphene as an Efficient Polysulfide Barrier to Enable High Performance Li-S Batteries
Next Article in Special Issue
Effects of Hydroxytyrosol in Endothelial Functioning: A Comprehensive Review
Previous Article in Journal
Screening of Rosemary Essential Oils with Different Phytochemicals for Antioxidant Capacity, Keratinocyte Cytotoxicity, and Anti-Proliferative Activity
Previous Article in Special Issue
Pharmacotherapeutics Applications and Chemistry of Chalcone Derivatives
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 28
Issue 2
10.3390/molecules28020587
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Behavioral Despair Is Blocked by the Flavonoid Chrysin (5,7-Dihydroxyflavone) in a Rat Model of Surgical Menopause

by
Luis Ángel Flores-Aguilar
1,†,
Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo
2,†,
Abraham Puga-Olguín
3,
Oscar Jerónimo Olmos-Vázquez
4,
Gilberto Uriel Rosas-Sánchez
4,
Blandina Bernal-Morales
4 and
Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa
4,*
1
Programa de Doctorado en Neuroetología, Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91190, Mexico
2
Departamento de Investigación Clínica y Traslacional, Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91190, Mexico
3
Unidad de Salud Integrativa, Centro de EcoAlfabetización y Diálogo de Saberes, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91060, Mexico
4
Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología, Instituto de Neuroetología, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91190, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Molecules 2023, 28(2), 587; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020587
Submission received: 16 November 2022 / Revised: 1 January 2023 / Accepted: 2 January 2023 / Published: 6 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flavonoids’ and Other Polyphenols’ Pharmacological Activities for Phytopharmaceutical and Medicinal Applications)
Browse Figure
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Women have a high susceptibility to the negative effects of stress. Hormonal changes experienced throughout their reproductive life partially contribute to a higher incidence of anxiety and depression symptoms, particularly, during natural or surgical menopause. In preclinical research, the flavonoid chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone) exerts anxiolytic- and anti-despair-like effects; however, it is unknown whether chrysin exerts a protective effect against the behavioral changes produced by acute stress on locomotor activity and behavioral despair in rats at 12-weeks post-ovariectomy. Ovariectomized female Wistar rats were assigned to eight groups: vehicle group (10% DMSO), three groups with chrysin and three groups with the same dose of allopregnanolone (0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg), and one group with diazepam (2 mg/kg). The treatments were administered for seven consecutive days and the effects were evaluated in the locomotor activity and swimming tests. Chrysin (2 mg/kg) increased the latency to first immobility and decreased the total immobility time in the swimming test as the reference drugs allopregnanolone and diazepam (2 mg/kg); while locomotor activity prevented the behavioral changes produced by swimming. In conclusion, chrysin exerts a protective effect against the behavioral changes induced by acute stress, similarly to the neurosteroid allopregnanolone and the benzodiazepine diazepam in rats subjected to a surgical menopause model.

1. Introduction

Stress is highly experienced in the world’s population. Stressors produced in several environments in which the individual develops, such as family, work, academic and socio-environmental, lead to the development of serious psychiatric disorders, among which post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression stand out [1,2]. The same effects of stress have been identified at preclinical research [3,4].
Female organisms are highly vulnerable to stress, due in part to the hormonal cyclicality they present throughout their life span [5,6], since hormones produce biological effects in several regions of the central nervous system (CNS) and play an important role in behavior and cognition [7,8]. In this way, a reduction of plasma and brain concentration of steroid hormones such as estradiol, progesterone, and their reduced metabolite allopregnanolone is associated with irritability, anxiety, and depression symptoms, particularly during premenstrual, postpartum and transition to menopause period in women [9,10]. These same effects occur as a consequence of ovarian hormones decline induced by surgical menopause [11].
Menopause marks the end of a woman’s reproductive period, characterized by ovarian dysfunction and the subsequent reduction of plasmatic concentrations of steroid hormones. This physiological state is associated to a greater vulnerability to the negative effects of stress, which increases the incidence and severity of the symptoms of irritability, anxiety, and depression [12,13,14]. Depression is a common psychiatric disorder, involving persistent sadness or loss of pleasure and suicidal behavior that impair daily functioning [15]. Additionally, it was ranked by World Health Organization as the single largest contributor to global disability and the major contributor to suicide deaths [16]. These changes in emotional state are more severe when a woman undergoes surgical remotion of one or both ovaries, knowns as oophorectomy, which triggers a state called “surgical menopause” [17,18]. Interestingly, the effects produced by the low concentration of ovarian hormones as a consequence of surgical remotion of ovaries in women have been reproduced in preclinical studies using long-term ovariectomy in rats [19,20]. This allows exploration of the potential therapeutic effects of several molecules on neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with surgical menopause in women [21].
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine and, in some cases, benzodiazepines such as diazepam are used to treat some symptoms of menopause [22,23]. However, patients can recur to therapeutic alternatives based on active molecules of vegetal origin such as flavonoids [24,25]. Regrettably, there is a lack of controlled studies to support or refute their potential therapeutic actions [26]. In this sense, some natural molecules, such as flavonoids, produce anxiolytic-like effects in animal models, comparable to those produced by diazepam [27,28]. At preclinical research, the flavonoid chrysin has verified anxiolytic-like effects mediated through the GABAA/Benzodiazepine receptor complex [29,30]. However, unlike benzodiazepines, chrysin exert anxiolytic actions without inducing sedation or muscle relaxation [30,31]. The anxiolytic effects of chrysin appear after a single injection of this flavonoid in rats with 12-weeks post-ovariectomy [32]. Both acute (single injection) and chronic (21 consecutive days) effects of chrysin (2, 4, 8 mmol/kg) on anxiety-like behavior are related to Fos immunoreactivity in the lateral septal nucleus [33], a brain structure involved in the physiopathology of anxiety and depression disorders. In addition, chrysin (1, 5, and 10 mg/kg for 28 days) produces antidepressant-like effects in the swimming test in male Wistar rats [34], and these effects are similar to those produced by steroid hormones progesterone and allopregnanolone, in post-menopausal rats [35]. However, it is unknown if the pre-treatment during seven days with chrysin can block the establishment of behavioral despair triggered by 15 min-swimming of post-ovariectomized rats as it occurs with progesterone and allopregnanolone [35,36,37,38]. Therefore, the present study explored the potential protective effect of the flavonoid chrysin against the acute stress induced by the swimming test in rats with chronic absence of ovarian hormones and it was compared with the effects produced by allopregnanolone and diazepam, two substances with proven anxiolytic and anti-stress effects at both preclinical and clinical research.

2. Results

2.1. Locomotor Activity Test

Analysis of crossing showed statistical differences according to session factor [F(1,64) = 29.885; p < 0.001], this variable was significantly decreased in test compared to the pre-test session. There were no differences between treatments [F(7,64) = 1.178; p = 0.328, NS], but the interaction between factors was significant [F(7,64) = 2.346; p < 0.034]. Rats administered with vehicle, allopregnanolone and chrysin rats’ groups (both 0.5 mg/kg) displayed less crossing in test respect to pre-test, while the remaining groups did not have any change in crossing between sessions. During the test session, chrysin (0.5 mg/kg), showed low values compared to the vehicle group and produced less crossing compared to diazepam, allopregnanolone, and chrysin (2 mg/kg). See Table 1A.
The time spend in grooming did not vary between sessions [F(1,64) = 1.029; p = 0.314, NS] neither due to treatments [F(7,64) = 1.476; p = 0.192, NS]. Similarly, interaction between factors was not statistically significant [F(7,64) = 2.250; p = 0.041] (see Table 1B).
Rearing had differences due to session [F(1,64) = 43.082; p < 0.001] where rearing was lower in the test compared to the pre-test session. Pharmacological treatments had no effects in rearing [F (7,64) = 0.768; p = 0.616, NS]. On the other hand, the interaction between factors was significant [F(7,64) = 3.366; p < 0.004]. The groups vehicle, allopregnanolone (0.5, 1, 2 mg/kg) and chrysin (0.5) had less rearing in test compared to the respective pre-test session, while the groups chrysin (1, 2 mg/kg) and diazepam had no differences in rearing between sessions. In the test session, the dose of 0.5 mg/kg of chrysin had less rearing compared to the doses of 2 mg/kg of the same drug. No changes were observed in the other groups during test (Table 1C).

2.2. Forced Swim Test

2.2.1. Latency to the First Immobility (s)

A statistical analysis of latency to the first period of immobility showed significant differences between treatments [F(7,64) = 19.237; p < 0.001], as latency was higher in diazepam, chrysin and allopregnanolone groups (2 mg/kg) compared to the vehicle. The factor session was also statistically significant [F(1,64) = 40.965; p < 0.001], and latency decreased from the pre-test to test session. The interaction between factors was not significant [F(7,64) = 1.445; p = 0.203, NS]. See Table 2.

2.2.2. Total Time of Immobility (s)

Immobility time was modified by treatments [F(7,64) = 6.269; p ≤ 0.001], but not by session [F(1,64) = 3.125; p = 0.082, NS]. The interaction between factors was also significant [F(7,64) = 3.589; p = 0.003]. A post hoc test revealed that the total time of immobility increased from pre-test to test in vehicle and allopregnanolone treated groups (0.5 mg/kg), while it decreased in the diazepam group. The effect of treatments was observed in test session where chrysin (1 and 2 mg/kg), neurosteroid allopregnanolone (2 mg/kg) and benzodiazepine diazepam had shorter times of immobility, with respect to the vehicle-treated group (Figure 1).

3. Discussion

The present study explored the possible protective effects of seven days of pretreatment with flavonoid chrysin against the stress induced by forced swim in rats with long-term absence of ovarian hormones. Effects of chrysin were compared to those produced by allopregnanolone and diazepam. The 15 min-forced swim pre-test represented a stressor that reduced locomotion, exploration, and motivation 24 h later during the 5 min test session, these effects were prevented by the treatment with chrysin, similarly to allopregnanolone and diazepam. The results suggest that chrysin exerts anti-stress effects that block the development of behavioral despair triggered by forced swimming in rats with long-term absence of ovarian hormones.
In preclinical research, ovariectomy in rodents was used as a surgical postmenopausal model that produces changes equivalent to oophorectomy in women [39]. Ovariectomized rats develop endocrine, physiological, and emotional alterations characterized by an early increase in follicle-stimulating hormone levels and a decrease in progesterone and estrogen levels [40], similar to women who undergo oophorectomy [41,42,43]. The long-term effects of ovariectomy are accompanied by the loss of bone density [44], and reduced concentrations of dopamine, serotonin, testosterone, estradiol, allopregnanolone and GABA, and increased concentrations of noradrenaline and cortisol in the brain [43,45]. All those changes produce neuroanatomical modifications in brain structures involved in stress, anxiety, and depression such as the raphe nucleus, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, and lateral septal nucleus [10,43]. Additionally, an increase in anxiety- and depression-like behavior is detected several weeks post-ovariectomy [20,39], which resemble the phenomena observed in women [11]. These findings validate the utility of the rat ovariectomy as a menopause model for exploring the effects of molecules like the flavonoid chrysin on behavior, which could be an alternative treatment due to its accessibility and low sedative activity.
A contribution of the present study is the exploration of the effects of chrysin in ovariectomized rats 12-weeks after the surgery, when ovarian hormones are decreased [39,46] and the organism is more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of stress [12,47]. Even under this vulnerable condition chrysin exerted protective effects against the stress induced by forced swim pre-test in a similar way than allopregnanolone and diazepam. It suggests a potential therapeutic effect of this flavonoid against the stress related disturbances on the CNS without the secondary effects of benzodiazepines which still in anxiolytic doses increased risk of developing dementia [48,49], road accidents [50,51], desensitization of GABAA receptors in chronic treatments [52], and development of pharmacological tolerance which leads to the loss of their therapeutic capacity [53]. Interestingly, in previous studies it has been reported that flavonoid chrysin even in higher doses (>10 mg/kg) devoid of the characteristics side effects of benzodiazepines as diazepam, including sedation, motor incoordination and cognitive impairment [30,31]. This is the principal reason to consider that chrysin could be a potential alternative to benzodiazepines in the control of anxiety symptoms, particularly in individuals with low concentrations of ovarian hormones as occur in patients cursing natural and surgical menopause.
Locomotor activity explores the motor effects of several treatments as secondary metabolites and plant extracts [54,55,56] or effects associated to physiological states such as estrous cycles [57,58], menopause [20], pregnancy and breastfeeding [59]; or even the interaction of both treatments and physiological states [32,35]. Crossing is considered an indicator of activity, which is influenced by several factors and treatments. Stressors as chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) and space restriction decreases crossing compared to unstressed animals [60,61], which resembles our findings where animals treated with vehicle decreased crossing after the pre-test of forced swim while the treatments with chrysin, allopregnanolone or diazepam blocked this decrease, suggesting a protective effect against stress. Filho and collaborators have previously observed a protector effect of the administration of chrysin (28 days) against the stress induced by CUS on motor activity, which is associated to neuroplastic changes in female mice [62]. The present study confirms this effect and suggests that chrysin only requires seven days of treatment to exert an anti-stress effect and probably block the establishment of despair behavior in ovariectomized rats.
Grooming is a behavior with a high motivational component, sensible to several stressors [63,64] and anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs [65]. Grooming can decrease with severe stressors, depending on the intensity and duration of the stress triggered [66,67]. Thus, short grooming times are considered related to behavioral despair states [68]. In the present study, vehicle treated rats decreased grooming from pre-test to test, after being exposed to forced swim, which did not occur in animals treated with chrysin, allopregnanolone and diazepam, supporting again the protective effects of these drugs against stress as have been previously observed with other anxiolytic and antidepressant treatments such as 0.09 mg/kg of genistein or 17β-estradiol in ovariectomized rats [32,46].
Rearing is interpreted as an indicator of exploration [69,70]. This exploration is related to socioenvironmental factors that trigger arousal states in response to predators, food, or other information from the environment [71]; however, this behavior is also reduced by ovariectomy and some stressors [20,63], while anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs restore it to control values [32,35]. Similarly, in this present study, swimming-induced stress decreased rearing in vehicle-treated animals in test sessions compared to the pre-test session indicating the negative effect of stress; however, chrysin and the other treatments prevented this change, showing similar values in this variable between pre-test and test session, which indicate the protective effect of treatments against stress induced by the forced swim test. Similar findings on rearing have been reported with stressors as space restriction and predator odors [67] and other stressors such as space restriction in cold water [72]. Interestingly, reduction in rearing behavior is restored by anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs [32,35], as it occurs with flavonoid chrysin in the present study.
Forced swim test measures the total time of immobility as an indicator of a “behavioral despair” useful to predict potential antidepressant-like effects of drugs [73] and the impact of several stressors such as food restriction [74], among others. The latency to the first immobility assesses the magnitude of the first animal effort to cope with the aversive situation of being forced to swim without escape [75]. Total time of immobility is interpreted as an indirect measure of motivation, the longer the immobility, the lesser the motivation [73]. These behaviors are associated to changes at neurochemical and electrophysiological levels caused by stress and relatively equivalent to those observed in human depression [76,77,78] and in structures that modulate motivation as the lateral septum [79,80]. These changes are reverted with the administration of antidepressant drugs [37,81].
The present study showed the establishment of “behavioral despair” as latency decreased and total time of immobility increased during the test session [37,73,82,83] in the vehicle and chrysin 0.5 mg/kg groups, indicating that this dose of chrysin is devoid of an antidepressant-like effect. Considering that treatments in the present study were injected during seven consecutive days before the pre-test session in the forced swim test, if treatments exerted an anxiolytic, antidepressant or antistress-like effect, it would be expected that the total time of immobility does not increase in the test session, as it occurred in the present study with chrysin and allopregnanolone 1 and 2 mg/kg, and diazepam 2 mg/kg. These findings again support the protective effects of treatments against stress induced during the pre-test session in the forced swim test. Contrarily, vehicle and chrysin 0.5 mg/kg groups increased the total time of immobility because they lack a protective treatment against stress induced by the 15 min pre-test, therefore these groups develop despair behavior (increase of immobility).
Finally, one limitation of the present study was that we did not explore the mechanism of action of the behavioral effects produced by flavonoid chrysin in rats with long-term absence of ovarian hormones. However, it is widely known that chrysin exerts its principally pharmacological action mainly through the GABAA receptors. In Xenopus laevis oocytes, chrysin binds on α1, β1, and γ2 subunits of the GABAA receptor, which could be associated with its anxiolytic-like actions [84]. In this way, it is probable that flavonoid chrysin acted through GABAA receptor increasing chloride ions influx in neurons, which relates to improvements in stress coping, anxiolytic-like effects, and even antidepressant-like effects in the forced swim test [35], as it occurs with GABAergic compounds, including neurosteroids as progesterone and allopregnanolone exerting protective effects against stress and behavior despair [38,83,85,86]. In support, it has been previously reported that pretreatment with picrotoxin, bicuculline and flumazenil, antagonists of the GABAA receptor, block the anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects of chrysin [30,32,35]. In this sense, it is to possible suggest that the GABAA receptor is therefore a molecular target to the substances tested in the present experiment, chrysin [30,31], allopregnanolone [37,87], and diazepam [88], without discarding the participation of other systems of neurotransmission.
Altogether, the present results indicate that flavonoid chrysin prevents the establishment of anxiety and despair-like behaviors induced by a severe acute stressor in rats subjected to the surgical menopause model, like neurosteroid allopregnanolone and benzodiazepine diazepam. The present findings prompt further clinical studies on the neuropsychiatric effects of chrysin to contribute to the prevention and control of anxiety and depression symptoms in women under surgical menopause or transition to natural menopause, with finality of improving life quality.

4. Material and Methods

4.1. Ethics

All experimental procedures were performed according to the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the National Institutes of Health [89] and the Norma Official Mexicana para el Uso y Cuidado de Animales de Laboratorio [90]. All efforts were made to minimize animal discomfort and the number of animals according to the Reduce, Refine, Replace (3R) principles of preclinical research [91]. The general protocol was approved by the Institutional Internal Committee for the care and use of laboratory animals of the Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia de la Universidad de Tlaxcala (UTx/MVZ-189/12).

4.2. Animals

Seventy-two female Wistar rats (three-month-old; 250–300 g at the beginning of the experiments) were housed in Plexiglas cages, 4 rats per cage (44 cm width × 33 cm length × 20 cm height), with a 12 h/12 h light/dark cycle (lights on at 07:00 h), average room temperature of 25 °C (±1 °C) and free access to purified water and food (Purina Pellets, Agribrands Purina Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico) during the study period. All experimental sessions were conducted between 09:00 and 12:00 h.

4.3. Drugs

Pentobarbital sodium was purchased from Cheminova de Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico. Reg. SAGARPA Q-7048-044). Benzalkonium chloride from Medipharm®, San Luis Río Colorado, Sonora, Mexico. Dipirona50® was obtained from Virbac Animal Health, Guadalajara, Mexico. Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) was purchased from Golden Bell Reactivos (Mexico City, Mexico). Atropine sulphate, chrysin (Chry, 5,7-Dihydroxyflavone < 97%) and allopregnanolone (Allo, 5α-Pregnan-3α-ol-20-one) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Diazepam (Valium, injectable solution) was obtained from Laboratory Roche (Mexico City, Mexico). Saline solution (0.9%) was purchased from PiSA Farmacéutica (Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico).

4.4. Ovarectomy

Only females with three continuous regular cycles (4–5 days), verified daily by vaginal smears [92], were included in the study. Surgical remotion of both ovaries was performed through abdominal ventral incision under deep anesthesia (pentobarbital sodium, 60 mg/kg, i.p.) and previous administration of atropine sulphate (0.05 mg/kg, i.p.). After remotion of both ovaries the area was carefully cleaned with benzalkonium chloride, and muscle and skin were sutured separately. Analgesic and antipyretic medication (Dipirona50®, 50 mg/kg, i.m.) was administered after the surgery and during the subsequent four days to minimize post-surgical pain. After surgery and during the entire experimental protocol all the rats were examined daily to detect health anomalies, including changes in water and food intake, eye orbital tightening, nose/cheek flattening, ear position, vibrissae position, hair bristling, and changes in coat color and texture. Some of these evaluations were based on the Rat Grimace Scale [93]. Then, rats were randomly assigned to each of the experimental groups and returned to the housing facilities for 12 weeks to assure the long-term absence of ovarian hormones and behavioral indicators of anxiety- and despair-like states [32,39]. After this time all groups started treatments and were subjected to behavioral tests.

4.5. Experimental Groups

Eight experimental groups (n = 9 each group) were assembled: a vehicle group (10% DMSO), three groups with chrysin and three groups with allopregnanolone (0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg), and one diazepam group (2 mg/kg). After 12 weeks post-ovariectomy, drugs were injected via i.p. for seven consecutive days. One hour after the last administration rats were submitted to locomotor activity tests (5 min) and subsequently to forced swim stress (pre-test session 15 min, stress induced session). Twenty-four hours later all groups were evaluated for 5 min in each of the same behavioral tests. Diazepam (2 mg/kg) was used as a reference anxiolytic drug [32,94], which also reduces total time of immobility in the swimming test [33]. The doses of chrysin were based on previous works in which doses from 1 to 4 mg/kg had anxiolytic-like effects [32,33] and 1 and 2 mg/kg had antidepressant-like effects in male rats [35]. Therefore, since female rats are more responsive to anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs, a specific doses-response curve (0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg) was included to identify possible anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects using lower doses than those used in male rats under our experimental conditions. Allopregnanolone doses were used as controls of antidepressant-like agents with GABAergic properties [35,37].

4.6. Behavioral Tests

4.6.1. Locomotor Activity Test (LAT)

The changes in spontaneous locomotor activity were evaluated by individually placing the rats into an opaque Plexiglas cage (44 × 33 cm, base; 20 cm high) with the floor delineated into 12 squares (11 × 11 cm). Variables as number of crossing and time in seconds spent in grooming and rearing were evaluated. Rats were considered to have crossed from one square to another (crossing) when the hind legs crossed the line from one square to another. Grooming included all self-directed behaviors of cleaning from head, ears, limbs, and anal–genital region; this behavior may be significantly affected by diverse stressors [46]. Rearing was measured when rats explored the cage in a vertical position standing on its rear limbs. Rearing was evaluated considering that is a behavior related with exploration and it is significantly affected by ovariectomy and stressors [20], while anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs may prevent said effects and maintain or increase this variable respect to control groups [32,35]. After each rat was tested, the locomotor activity cage was carefully cleaned with 10% alcohol solution to remove the scent of the previously evaluated rat. After the locomotor activity test, rats were subjected to the swimming test. Approximately 2 min elapsed between tests.

4.6.2. Forced Swim Test (FST)

After LAT, rats were individually forced to swim in a rectangular pool (50 × 30 × 60 cm) with 25 cm deep water (25 ± 1 °C). The variables evaluated were the latency to first immobility and total time of immobility. Latency to the first immobility is the elapsed time since the rat was introduced to the pool, until the first immobility episode. The immobility was considered when the rat floated for more than 1 s without making vigorous movements leading to displacements and only maintaining its head above the water surface. These behaviors are indicators of despair and antidepressant-like effects of clinically effective antidepressant drugs and other substances [73,75]. All experimental sessions were video recorded and two independent observers, blind to treatments, measured the behavioral variables with a concordance level of at least 95%.

Forced Swim Pre-Test (Acute Stressor)

As part of the methodology of the forced swimming model, there is the “pre-test” session, which consists of a 15 min session in which the rat is placed in a pool of water that constitutes an aversive stimulus with no possibility of escape [73]. Being a novel environment for the rat as well as aversive, this “pre-test” has been considered a highly stressful situation, which 24 h later, produces a state of hopelessness characterized by a significant increase in the total time of immobility [95,96]. One of the first studies to test this approach was that of Franco Borsini, in which similar duration of immobility behavior, suggestive of hopelessness, was identified between rats that received the 15 min “pre-test” session in forced swimming and rats that were subjected to 3 stressful situations: space restriction, exposure to low temperatures (4 °C) and continuous electric shocks to the paws [82]. Additionally, the severe acute stress of swimming triggers a marked increase in blood glucocorticoid concentration similar to the increase produced by a session of space restriction [97]. Similarly, glucocorticoid levels increase when rats are submitted to forced swim test for 25 min or until complete exhaustion [98]. Likewise, GABAA receptor expression has also been shown to change with chronic exposure to swimming stress [99]. Therefore, in this study, we performed the behavioral measurement of the effects of the forced swim pre-test session, videotaping and analyzing only the first 5 min of this pre-test [100,101] and compared to the 5 min test 24 h later.

4.7. Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis was conducted using Sigma Plot 12 software. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA for repeated samples, with treatments and tests session as factors. Data were transformed to ranks using Sigma Plot 12 software to satisfy the assumptions of the normality test and equal variance test, and then analyzed. Values of p ≤ 0.05 in the ANOVA were followed by the Student–Newman–Keuls post hoc test. The results are expressed as mean ± standard error.

5. Conclusions

The flavonoid chrysin blocks the establishment of anxiety- and despair-like behaviors induced by the forced swim pre-test in ovariectomized rats, resembling the effect of GABAergic drugs as allopregnanolone and diazepam. These results support the potential therapeutic effects of flavonoid chrysin in stress-related disorders like anxiety and depression associated with surgical menopause in females.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology: J.F.R.-L., J.C.-E. and L.Á.F.-A. Methodology and formal analysis: A.P.-O., O.J.O.-V. and G.U.R.-S. Data curation: J.F.R.-L., B.B.-M. and J.C.-E. Writing manuscript: L.Á.F.-A., J.C.-E. and J.F.R.-L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was part of SIREI project no. DGI: 26650202238 to J.F.R.L. This research was partially funded by Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI): Exp. 171055 (J.C.-E.), 32753 (J.F.R.-L.), and 32935 (B.B.-M).

Institutional Review Board Statement

All of the experimental procedures were strictly performed according to the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (National Research Council, 2011) and Norma Oficial Mexicana para el Cuidado y Uso de Animales de Laboratorio (NOM-ZOO-062, 1999). The protocol was evaluated and approved by the institutional Internal Committee for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (UTx/MVZ-189/12).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data from this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) for fellowship received for Doctorate Studies in Neuroethology: 726347 (L.Á.F.-A.) and 574269 (O.J.O.-V.).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Sample Availability

Samples of the compounds are available from the authors.

References

  1. McEwen, B.S.; Akil, H. Revisiting the stress concept: Implications for affective disorders. J. Neurosci. 2020, 40, 12–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  2. Juruena, M.F.; Eror, F.; Cleare, A.J.; Young, A.H. The role of early life stress in HPA axis and anxiety. In Anxiety Disorders: Rethinking and Understanding Recent Discoveries (Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1191); Kim, Y.K., Ed.; Springer Nature: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; Volume 1191, pp. 141–153. [Google Scholar]
  3. Ben-Azu, B.; Emokpae, O.; Ajayi, A.M.; Jarikre, T.A.; Orhode, V.; Aderibigbe, A.O.; Umukoro, S.; Iwalewa, E.O. Repeated psychosocial stress causes glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform-67, oxidative-Nox-2 changes and neuroinflammation in mice: Prevention by treatment with a neuroactive flavonoid, morin. Brain Res. 2020, 1744, 146917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Oladapo, O.M.; Ben-Azu, B.; Ajayi, A.M.; Emokpae, O.; Eneni, A.O.; Omogbiya, I.A.; Iwalewa, E.O. Naringin confers protection against psychosocial defeat stress-induced neurobehavioral deficits in mice: Involvement of glutamic acid decarboxylase isoform-67, oxido-nitrergic stress, and neuroinflammatory mechanisms. J. Mol. Neurosci. 2021, 71, 431–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Bangasser, D.A.; Valentino, R.J. Sex differences in stress-related psychiatric disorders: Neurobiological perspectives. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2014, 35, 303–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Bangasser, D.A.; Eck, S.R.; Ordoñes Sanchez, E. Sex differences in stress reactivity in arousal and attention systems. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019, 44, 129–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  7. Gordon, J.L.; Girdler, S.S.; Meltzer-Brody, S.E.; Stika, C.S.; Thurston, R.C.; Clark, C.T.; Prairie, B.A.; Moses-Kolko, E.; Joffe, H.; Wisner, K.L. Ovarian hormone fluctuation, neurosteroids, and HPA axis dysregulation in perimenopausal depression: A novel heuristic model. Am. J. Psychiatry 2015, 172, 227–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Slavich, G.M.; Sacher, J. Stress, sex hormones, inflammation, and major depressive disorder: Extending social signal transduction theory of depression to account for sex differences in mood disorders. Psychopharmacology 2019, 236, 3063–3079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Albert, K.; Pruessner, J.; Newhouse, P. Estradiol levels modulate brain activity and negative responses to psychosocial stress across the menstrual cycle. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015, 59, 14–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Giannini, A.; Caretto, M.; Genazzani, A.R.; Simoncini, T. Neuroendocrine changes during menopausal transition. Endocrines 2021, 2, 405–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Rocca, W.A.; Grossardt, B.R.; Geda, Y.E.; Gostout, B.S.; Bower, J.H.; Maraganore, D.M.; de Andrade, M.; Melton, L.J. Long-term risk of depressive and anxiety symptoms after early bilateral oophorectomy. Menopause 2018, 25, 1275–1285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Soares, C.N. Depression in peri- and postmenopausal women: Prevalence, pathophysiology and pharmacological management. Drugs Aging 2013, 30, 677–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Mulhall, S.; Andel, R.; Anstey, K.J. Variation in symptoms of depression and anxiety in midlife women by menopausal status. Maturitas 2018, 108, 7–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Talaulikar, V. Menopause transition: Physiology and symptoms. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2022, 81, 3–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. World Health Organization and Columbia University. Group Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) for Depression (WHO generic field-trial version 1.0); WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/250219/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4-eng.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2022).
  16. World Health Organization. Depression and Other Common Mental Disorders: Global Health Estimates; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017. Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/254610 (accessed on 7 September 2022).
  17. Taylor, M. Psychological consequences of surgical menopause. J. Reprod. Med. 2001, 46, 317–324. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  18. Henderson, V.W.; Sherwin, B.B. Surgical versus natural menopause: Cognitive issues. Menopause 2007, 14, 572–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Estrada-Camarena, E.; López-Rubalcava, C.; Hernández-Aragón, A.; Mejía-Mauries, S.; Picazo, O. Long-term ovariectomy modulates the antidepressant-like action of estrogens, but not of antidepressants. J. Psychopharmacol. 2011, 25, 1365–1377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Puga-Olguín, A.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Rovirosa-Hernández, M.J.; Germán-Ponciano, L.J.; Caba, M.; Meza, E.; Guillén-Ruiz, G.; Olmos-Vázquez, O.J. Long-term ovariectomy increases anxiety- and despair-like behaviors associated with lower Fos immunoreactivity in the lateral septal nucleus in rats. Behav. Brain Res. 2019, 360, 185–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F. Considerations of timing post-ovariectomy in mice and rats in studying anxiety- and depression-like behaviors associated with surgical menopause in women. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2022, 16, 829274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Kou, S.-T. Efficacy comparison of menopausal irritability between acupuncture and medication: A randomized controlled trial. Zhongguo Zhen Jiu Chin. Acupunct. Moxibustion 2014, 34, 455–458. [Google Scholar]
  23. Zhou, J.; Wang, X.; Feng, L.; Xiao, L.; Yang, R.; Zhu, X.; Shi, H.; Hu, Y.; Chen, R.; Boyce, P.; et al. Venlafaxine vs. fluoxetine in postmenopausal women with major depressive disorder: An 8-week, randomized, single-blind, active-controlled study. BMC Psychiatry 2021, 21, 260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kargozar, R.; Azizi, H.; Salari, R. A review of effective herbal medicines in controlling menopausal symptoms. Electron Physician 2017, 9, 5826–5833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kenda, M.; Glavač, N.K.; Nagy, M.; Sollner Dolenc, M. Herbal products used in menopause and for gynecological disorders. Molecules 2021, 26, 7421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. López-Rubalcava, C.; Estrada-Camarena, E. Mexican medicinal plants with anxiolytic or antidepressant activity: Focus on preclinical research. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 186, 377–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Cases, J.; Ibarra, A.; Feuillère, N.; Roller, M.; Sukkar, S.G. Pilot trial of Melissa officinalis L. leaf extract in the treatment of volunteers suffering from mild-to-moderate anxiety disorders and sleep disturbances. Med. J. Nutrition Metab. 2011, 4, 211–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. Kumar, D.; Bhat, Z.A. Apigenin 7-glucoside from Stachys tibetica Vatke and its anxiolytic effect in rats. Phytomedicine 2014, 21, 1010–1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Medina, J.H.; Paladini, A.C.; Wolfman, C.; de Stein, M.L.; Calvo, D.; Diaz, L.E.; Peña, C. Chrysin (5,7-di-OH-flavone), a naturally-occurring ligand for benzodiazepine receptors, with anticonvulsant properties. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1990, 40, 2227–2231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Zanoli, P.; Avallone, R.; Baraldi, M. Behavioral characterisation of the flavonoids apigenin and chrysin. Fitoterapia 2000, 71, S117–S123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Salgueiro, J.B.; Ardenghi, P.; Dias, M.; Ferreira, M.B.C.; Izquierdo, I.; Medina, J.H. Anxiolytic natural and synthetic flavonoid ligands of the central benzodiazepine receptor have no effect on memory tasks in rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1997, 58, 887–891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Hernández-López, F.; Cueto-Escobedo, J.; Herrera-Huerta, E.V.; Rivadeneyra-Domínguez, E.; Bernal-Morales, B.; Romero-Avendaño, E. Chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone) exerts anxiolytic-like effects through GABAA receptors in a surgical menopause model in rats. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2019, 109, 2387–2395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Germán-Ponciano, L.J.; Puga-Olguín, A.; Rovirosa-Hernández, M.J.; Caba, M.; Meza, E.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F. Differential effects of acute and chronic treatment with the flavonoid chrysin on anxiety-like behavior and Fos immunoreactivity in the lateral septal nucleus in rats. Acta Pharm. 2020, 70, 387–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. German-Ponciano, L.J.; Rosas-Sánchez, G.U.; Ortiz-Guerra, S.I.; Soria-Fregozo, C.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F. Effects of chrysin on mRNA expression of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in the raphe nuclei and hippocampus. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2021, 31, 353–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Cueto-Escobedo, J.; Andrade-Soto, J.; Lima-Maximino, M.; Maximino, C.; Hernández-López, F.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F. Involvement of GABAergic system in the antidepressant-like effects of chrysin (5,7-dihydroxyflavone) in ovariectomized rats in the forced swim test: Comparison with neurosteroids. Behav. Brain Res. 2020, 386, 112590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Frye, C.A. Progesterone reduces depressive behavior of young ovariectomized, aged progestin receptor knockout, and aged wild type mice in the tail suspension test. J. Psychopharmacol. 2011, 25, 421–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Contreras, C.M.; Bernal-Morales, B.; Gutiérrez-García, A.G.; Saavedra, M. Allopregnanolone reduces immobility in the forced swimming test and increases the firing rate of lateral septal neurons through actions on the GABAA receptor in the rat. J. Psychopharmacol. 2007, 21, 76–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Olmos-Vázquez, O.J.; Dutra da Costa, B.P.; Lima-Maximino, M.; Maximino, C.; Guillén-Ruiz, G. Actions of progesterone on depression-like behavior in a model of surgical menopause are mediated by GABAA receptors. Sal. Ment. 2020, 43, 43–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Picazo, O.; Estrada-Camarena, E.; Hernández-Aragon, A. Influence of the post-ovariectomy time frame on the experimental anxiety and the behavioural actions of some anxiolytic agents. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2006, 530, 88–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Moiety, F.M.; Salem, H.A.; Mehanna, R.A.; Abdel-Ghany, B.S. Comparative study on induction and effects of surgical menopause in a female rat model: A prospective case control study. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Med. 2015, 8, 9403–9411. [Google Scholar]
  41. Chung-Park, M. Anxiety attacks following surgical menopause. Nurse Pract. 2006, 31, 44–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Kingsberg, S.A.; Larkin, L.C.; Liu, J.H. Clinical effects of early or surgical menopause. Obstet. Gynecol. 2020, 135, 853–868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Monteleone, P.; Mascagni, G.; Giannini, A.; Genazzani, A.R.; Simoncini, T. Symptoms of menopause—Global prevalence, physiology and implications. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2018, 14, 199–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. During, A.; Coutel, X.; Bertheaume, N.; Penel, G.; Olejnik, C. Long term ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis is associated with high stearoyl-CoA desaturase indexes in rat femur. Calcif. Tissue Int. 2020, 106, 315–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Bossé, R.; Di Paolo, T. The modulation of brain dopamine and GABAA receptors by estradiol: A clue for CNS changes occurring at menopause. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 1996, 16, 199–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Cueto-Escobedo, J.; Puga-Olguín, A.; Rivadeneyra-Domínguez, E.; Bernal-Morales, B.; Herrera-Huerta, E.V.; Santos-Torres, A. The phytoestrogen genistein produces similar effects as 17β-estradiol on anxiety-like behavior in rats at 12 weeks after ovariectomy. Biomed. Res. Int. 2017, 2017, 9073816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  47. Ryu, A.; Kim, T.H. Premenstrual syndrome: A mini review. Maturitas 2015, 82, 436–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Billioti de Gage, S.; Begaud, B.; Bazin, F.; Verdoux, H.; Dartigues, J.F.; Peres, K.; Kurth, T.; Pariente, A. Benzodiazepine use and risk of dementia: Prospective population based study. BMJ 2012, 345, e6231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  49. Gray, S.L.; Dublin, S.; Yu, O.; Walker, R.; Anderson, M.; Hubbard, R.A.; Crane, P.K.; Larson, E.B. Benzodiazepine use and risk of incident dementia or cognitive decline: Prospective population based study. BMJ 2016, 352, i90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  50. Dassanayake, T.; Michie, P.; Carter, G.; Jones, A. Effects of benzodiazepines, antidepressants and opioids on driving: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological and experimental evidence. Drug Saf. 2011, 34, 125–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Orriols, L.; Philip, P.; Moore, N.; Castot, A.; Gadegbeku, B.; Delorme, B.; Mallaret, M.; Lagarde, E. Benzodiazepine-like hypnotics and the associated risk of road traffic accidents. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2011, 89, 595–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Fujita, M.; Woods, S.W.; Verhoeff, N.P.L.G.; Abi-Dargham, A.; Baldwin, R.M.; Zoghbi, S.S.; Soares, J.C.; Jatlow, P.A.; Krystal, J.H.; Rajeevan, N.; et al. Changes of benzodiazepine receptors during chronic benzodiazepine administration in humans. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1999, 368, 161–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Uzun, S.; Kozumplik, O.; Jakovljević, M.; Sedić, B. Side effects of treatment with benzodiazepines. Psychiatr. Danub. 2010, 22, 90–93. [Google Scholar]
  54. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Cueto-Escobedo, J.; Flores-Aguilar, L.A.; Rosas-Sánchez, G.U.; Rovirosa-Hernández, M.J.; García-Orduña, F.; Carro-Juárez, M. The aqueous crude extracts of Montanoa frutescens and Montanoa grandiflora reduce immobility faster than fluoxetine through GABAA receptors in rats forced to swim. J. Evid. Based Integr. Med. 2018, 23, 2515690X18762953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  55. Fernández-Demeneghi, R.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Guzmán-Gerónimo, R.I.; Acosta-Mesa, H.G.; Meza-Alvarado, E.; Vargas-Moreno, I.; Herrera-Meza, S. Effect of blackberry juice (Rubus fruticosus L.) on anxiety-like behaviour in Wistar rats. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 70, 856–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Lagunes-Merino, O.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Caba, M.; Carro-Juárez, M.; García-Orduña, F.; Saavedra-Vélez, M.; Puga-Olguín, A.; de Jesús Rovirosa-Hernández, M. Acute effect of an infusion of Montanoa tomentosa on despair-like behavior and activation of oxytocin hypothalamic cells in Wistar rats. J. Tradit. Complement. Med. 2020, 10, 45–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Fernández-Guasti, A.; Picazo, O. The actions of diazepam and serotonergic anxiolytics vary according to the gender and the estrous cycle phase. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1990, 37, 77–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Contreras, C.M.; Molina, M.; Saavedra, M.; Martínez-Mota, L. Lateral septal neuronal firing rate increases during proestrus-estrus in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 2000, 68, 279–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Zuluaga, M.J.; Agrati, D.; Pereira, M.; Uriarte, N.; Fernández-Guasti, A.; Ferreira, A. Experimental anxiety in the black and white model in cycling, pregnant and lactating rats. Physiol. Behav. 2005, 84, 279–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Araujo, A.P.N.; DeLucia, R.; Scavone, C.; Planeta, C.S. Repeated predictable or unpredictable stress: Effects on cocaine-induced locomotion and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity. Behav. Brain Res. 2003, 139, 75–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Pechlivanova, D.M.; Stoynev, A.G.; Tchekalarova, J.D. The effects of chronic losartan pretreatment on restraint stress-induced changes in motor activity, nociception and pentylenetetrazol generalized seizures in rats. Folia Med. 2011, 53, 69–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  62. Filho, C.B.; Jesse, C.R.; Donato, F.; Giacomeli, R.; del Fabbro, L.; da Silva Antunes, M.; de Gomes, M.G.; Goes, A.T.R.; Boeira, S.P.; Prigol, M.; et al. Chronic unpredictable mild stress decreases BDNF and NGF levels and Na+, K+-ATPase activity in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of mice: Antidepressant effect of chrysin. Neuroscience 2015, 289, 367–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Kalueff, A.V.; Tuohimaa, P. Grooming analysis algorithm for neurobehavioural stress research. Brain Res. Protoc. 2004, 13, 151–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Fentress, J.C. Interrupted ongoing behaviour in two species of vole (Microtus agrestis and Clethrionomys britannicus). I. Response as a function of preceding activity and the context of an apparently ‘Irrelevant’ motor pattern. Anim. Behav. 1968, 16, 135–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Enginar, N.; Hatipoğlu, I.; Firtina, M. Evaluation of the acute effects of amitriptyline and fluoxetine on anxiety using grooming analysis algorithm in rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2008, 89, 450–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Moyaho, A.; Valencia, J. Grooming and yawning trace adjustment to unfamiliar environments in laboratory Sprague-Dawley rats (Rattus norvegicus). J. Comp. Psychol. 2002, 116, 263–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Perrot-Sinal, T.S.; Gregus, A.; Boudreau, D.; Kalynchuk, L.E. Sex and repeated restraint stress interact to affect cat odor-induced defensive behavior in adult rats. Brain Res. 2004, 1027, 161–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Hernández-Figueroa, J.D.; Hernández-Calderón, B.C.; Saavedra, M. Anxiolytic-like effect of phytoestrogen genistein in rats with long-term absence of ovarian hormones in the black and white model. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2009, 33, 367–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  69. Sturman, O.; Germain, P.-L.; Bohacek, J. Exploratory rearing: A context- and stress-sensitive behavior recorded in the open-field test. Stress 2018, 21, 443–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  70. Wexler, Y.; Benjamini, Y.; Golani, I. Vertical exploration and dimensional modularity in mice. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2018, 5, 180069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  71. Renner, M.J. Experience-dependent changes in exploratory behavior in the adult rat (Rattus norvegicus): Overall activity level and interactions with objects. J. Comp. Psychol. 1987, 101, 94–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Klenerová, V.; Sída, P.; Krejcí, I.; Hlinák, Z.; Hynie, S. Effects of two types of restraint stress on spontaneous behavior of Sprague-Dawley and Lewis rats. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2007, 58, 83–94. [Google Scholar]
  73. Porsolt, R.D.; le Pichon, M.; Jalfre, M. Depression: A new animal model sensitive to antidepressant treatments. Nature 1977, 266, 730–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Campus, P.; Maiolati, M.; Orsini, C.; Cabib, S. Altered consolidation of extinction-like inhibitory learning in genotype-specific dysfunctional coping fostered by chronic stress in mice. Behav. Brain Res. 2016, 315, 23–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Espejo, E.F.; Miñano, F.J. Prefrontocortical dopamine depletion induces antidepressant-like effects in rats and alters the profile of desipramine during Porsolt’s test. Neuroscience 1999, 88, 609–615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Inglis, F.M.; Moghaddam, B. Dopaminergic innervation of the amygdala is highly responsive to stress. J. Neurochem. 1999, 72, 1088–1094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Contreras, C.M.; Chacón, L.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Bernal-Morales, B.; Gutiérrez-García, A.G.; Saavedra, M. Spontaneous firing rate of lateral septal neurons decreases after forced swimming test in Wistar rat. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 2004, 28, 343–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Bouchez, G.; Millan, M.J.; Rivet, J.M.; Billiras, R.; Boulanger, R.; Gobert, A. Quantification of extracellular levels of corticosterone in the basolateral amygdaloid complex of freely-moving rats: A dialysis study of circadian variation and stress-induced modulation. Brain Res. 2012, 1452, 47–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Duncan, G.; Johnson, K.; Breese, G. Topographic patterns of brain activity in response to swim stress: Assessment by 2-deoxyglucose uptake and expression of Fos-like immunoreactivity. J. Neurosci. 1993, 13, 3932–3943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Sherwin, E.; Gigliucci, V.; Harkin, A. Regional specific modulation of neuronal activation associated with nitric oxide synthase inhibitors in an animal model of antidepressant activity. Behav. Brain Res. 2017, 316, 18–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Contreras, C.M.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Gutiérrez-García, A.G.; Bernal-Morales, B. The lowest effective dose of fluoxetine in the forced swim test significantly affects the firing rate of lateral septal nucleus neurones in the rat. J. Psychopharmacol. 2001, 15, 231–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Borsini, F.; Lecci, A.; Sessarego, A.; Frassine, R.; Meli, A. Discovery of antidepressant activity by forced swimming test may depend on pre-exposure of rats to a stressful situation. Psychopharmacology 1989, 97, 183–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Contreras, C.M.; García-Ríos, R.I. Allopregnanolone microinjected into the lateral septum or dorsal hippocampus reduces immobility in the forced swim test: Participation of the GABAA receptor. Behav. Pharmacol. 2009, 20, 614–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Goutman, J.D.; Waxemberg, M.D.; Doñate-Oliver, F.; Pomata, P.E.; Calvo, D.J. Flavonoid modulation of ionic currents mediated by GABA(A) and GABA(C) receptors. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2003, 461, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Zorumski, C.F.; Paul, S.M.; Covey, D.F.; Mennerick, S. Neurosteroids as novel antidepressants and anxiolytics: GABA-A receptors and beyond. Neurobiol. Stress 2019, 11, 100196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Saeedi Saravi, S.S.; Arefidoust, A.; Yaftian, R.; Saeedi Saravi, S.S.; Dehpour, A.R. 17α-ethinyl estradiol attenuates depressive-like behavior through GABAA receptor activation/nitrergic pathway blockade in ovariectomized mice. Psychopharmacology 2016, 233, 1467–1485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. Edinoff, A.N.; Odisho, A.S.; Lewis, K.; Kaskas, A.; Hunt, G.; Cornett, E.M.; Kaye, A.D.; Kaye, A.; Morgan, J.; Barrilleaux, P.S.; et al. Brexanolone, a GABAA modulator, in the treatment of postpartum depression in adults: A comprehensive review. Front. Psychiatry 2021, 12, 699740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Wongsamitkul, N.; Maldifassi, M.C.; Simeone, X.; Baur, R.; Ernst, M.; Sigel, E. α subunits in GABAA receptors are dispensable for GABA and diazepam action. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 15498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  89. National Research Council. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, 8th ed.; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2011; ISBN 978-0-309-15400-0. [Google Scholar]
  90. NOM-062-ZOO-1999; Especificaciones Técnicas para la Producción, Cuidado y Uso de los Animales de Laboratorio, Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Desarrollo Rural. Pesca y Alimentación: México City, Mexico, 1999.
  91. Russell, W.M.S.; Burch, R.L.; Hume, C.W. The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health: Baltimore, MD, USA, 2005; Available online: http://altweb.jhsph.edu/pubs/books/humane_exp/het-toc (accessed on 1 September 2022).
  92. Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Vicente-Serna, J.; Rodríguez-Blanco, L.A.; Rovirosa-Hernández, M.J.; García-Orduña, F.; Carro-Juárez, M. Montanoa frutescens and Montanoa grandiflora extracts reduce anxiety-like behavior during the metestrus-diestrus phase of the ovarian cycle in Wistar rats. Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, 2014, 938060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  93. Sotocinal, S.G.; Sorge, R.E.; Zaloum, A.; Tuttle, A.H.; Martin, L.J.; Wieskopf, J.S.; Mapplebeck, J.C.S.; Wei, P.; Zhan, S.; Zhang, S.; et al. The rat grimace scale: A partially automated method for quantifying pain in the laboratory rat via facial expressions. Mol. Pain 2011, 7, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  94. Contreras, C.M.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F.; Gutiérrez-García, A.G.; Mendoza-López, M.R.; García-Ríos, R.I.; Cueto-Escobedo, J. Anxiolytic-like effects of human amniotic fluid and its fatty acids in Wistar rats. Behav. Pharmacol. 2011, 22, 655–662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Armario, A.; Gavaldà, A.; Martí, O. Forced swimming test in rats: Effect of desipramine administration and the period of exposure to the test on struggling behavior, swimming, immobility and defecation rate. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1988, 158, 207–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Suvrathan, A.; Tomar, A.; Chattarji, S. Effects of chronic and acute stress on rat behaviour in the forced-swim test. Stress 2010, 13, 533–540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Jameel, M.K. Effect of various physical stress models on serum cortisol level in Wistar rats. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 2014, 8, 181–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Contarteze, R.V.L.; Manchado, F.D.B.; Gobatto, C.A.; de Mello, M.A.R. Stress biomarkers in rats submitted to swimming and treadmill running exercises. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2008, 151, 415–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Weizman, R.; Weizman, A.; Kook, K.A.; Vocci, F.; Deutsch, S.I.; Paul, S.M. Repeated swim stress alters brain benzodiazepine receptors measured in vivo. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1989, 249, 701–707. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  100. Shirayama, Y.; Chen, A.C.-H.; Nakagawa, S.; Russell, D.S.; Duman, R.S. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor produces antidepressant effects in behavioral models of depression. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22, 3251–3261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Martínez-Mota, L.; López-Rubalcava, C.; Rodríguez-Manzo, G. Ejaculation induces long-lasting behavioural changes in male rats in the forced swimming test: Evidence for an increased sensitivity to the antidepressant desipramine. Brain Res. Bull. 2005, 65, 323–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Molecules 28 00587 g001 550
Figure 1. Total time of immobility. Immobility increased from pre-test to test session in vehicle and allopregnanolone (0.5 mg/kg) groups, while no changes were detected in allopregnanolone (1 and 2 mg/kg) and chrysin (all evaluated doses) groups. In the test session, chrysin (1 and 2 mg/kg), allopregnanolone (2 mg/kg) and diazepam significantly reduced the immobility time with respect to vehicle in the test session. * p < 0.05 vs. same group in pre-test session, + p < 0.05 vs. vehicle in the test session. Data are represented as mean ± standard error. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA, post hoc Student–Neuman–Keuls.
Figure 1. Total time of immobility. Immobility increased from pre-test to test session in vehicle and allopregnanolone (0.5 mg/kg) groups, while no changes were detected in allopregnanolone (1 and 2 mg/kg) and chrysin (all evaluated doses) groups. In the test session, chrysin (1 and 2 mg/kg), allopregnanolone (2 mg/kg) and diazepam significantly reduced the immobility time with respect to vehicle in the test session. * p < 0.05 vs. same group in pre-test session, + p < 0.05 vs. vehicle in the test session. Data are represented as mean ± standard error. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA, post hoc Student–Neuman–Keuls.
Molecules 28 00587 g001
Table
Table 1. Variables evaluated in the locomotor activity test.
Table 1. Variables evaluated in the locomotor activity test.
Variable/Group (mg/kg)Pre-TestTestTotals
(A) Crossing (s)
Vehicle54.39 ± 9.0231.94 ± 6.00 +43.17 ± 5.92
Chrysin
0.551.00 ± 2.3923.22 ± 3.60 +*37.11 ± 3.97
1.050.00 ± 3.0543.11 ± 3.0746.56 ± 2.26
2.054.56 ± 3.1045.44 ± 3.8050.00 ± 2.62
Allopregnanolone
0.553.61 ± 6.3532.61 ± 4.27 +43.11 ± 4.50
1.046.44 ± 4.1643.23 ± 7.0444.84 ± 3.99
2.057.61 ± 8.7050.00 ± 8.1653.81 ± 5.86
Diazepam
2.051.67 ± 2.9848.56 ± 4.0150.11 ± 2.45
Totals52.41 ± 1.9139.77 ± 2.06 #
(B) Grooming (s)
Vehicle30.16 ± 5.9511.67 ± 3.5220.92 ± 4.03
Chrysin
0.519.30 ± 2.5510.68 ± 1.5214.99 ± 1.78
1.020.40 ± 1.9718.49 ± 1.5419.44 ± 1.24
2.023.43 ± 3.2420.49 ± 1.7121.96 ± 1.81
Allopregnanolone
0.515.35 ± 5.6321.70 ± 10.5218.53 ± 5.84
1.014.89 ± 5.5026.20 ± 7.5420.54 ± 4.73
2.023.68 ± 9.5532.96 ± 11.5928.32 ± 7.37
Diazepam
2.023.12 ± 2.5827.31 ± 3.0525.21 ± 2.00
Totals21.29 ± 1.8321.19 ± 2.32
(C) Rearing (s)
Vehicle42.28 ± 5.5224.65 ± 3.62 +33.46 ± 3.85
Chrysin
0.539.28 ± 2.3221.14 ± 1.65 +*30.21 ± 2.60
137.65 ± 1.7636.28 ± 2.5336.96 ± 1.51
237.35 ± 1.5938.26 ± 3.5537.80 ± 1.89
Allopregnanolone
0.548.90 ± 6.2123.21 ± 3.97 +36.06 ± 4.74
1.045.50 ± 4.9228.85 ± 4.34 +37.17 ± 3.77
2.046.62 ± 6.7740.35 ± 12.18 +43.49 ± 6.80
Diazepam
2.035.95 ± 2.4633.25 ± 3.0034.60 ± 1.91
Totals41.69 ± 1.5830.75 ± 1.96 #
(A) # p < 0.001 vs. pre-test; + p < 0.05 vs. same group pre-test; * p < 0.05 vs. Allopregnanolone 2 mg/kg, Chrysin 2 mg/kg, and Diazepam within same session. (B) No significant differences in grooming were found between sessions and groups. (C) # p < 0.01 vs. pre-test; + p < 0.05 vs. same group pre-test; * p < 0.05 vs. Chrysin 2 mg/kg within same session. Data are represented as mean ± standard error. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA, post hoc Student–Neuman–Keuls.
Table
Table 2. Latency to the first immobility (s).
Table 2. Latency to the first immobility (s).
Groups/mg/kgPre-TestTestTotals
Vehicle58.92 ± 6.1955.11 ± 16.8657.02 ± 8.72
Chrysin
0.553.34 ± 4.0430.93 ± 3.1842.14 ± 3.69
173.03 ± 4.6221.88 ± 3.8047.45 ± 6.85
2 130.12 ± 10.0581.57 ± 18.25105.85 ± 11.70 *
Allopregnanolone
0.556.36 ± 6.5436.40 ± 7.8846.38 ± 5.52
196.31 ± 7.4655.93 ± 5.0176.12 ± 6.55
2128.35 ± 11.5291.38 ± 19.44109.86 ± 11.84 *
Diazepam
2154.01 ± 12.7193.50 ± 14.13123.76 ± 11.78 *
Totals93.81 ± 5.2158.34 ± 5.29 +
* p < 0.001 vs. Vehicle; + p < 0.001 vs. pre-test. Data are presented as mean ± standard error. Two-way ANOVA for repeated measures, post hoc Student–Newman–Keuls.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Flores-Aguilar, L.Á.; Cueto-Escobedo, J.; Puga-Olguín, A.; Olmos-Vázquez, O.J.; Rosas-Sánchez, G.U.; Bernal-Morales, B.; Rodríguez-Landa, J.F. Behavioral Despair Is Blocked by the Flavonoid Chrysin (5,7-Dihydroxyflavone) in a Rat Model of Surgical Menopause. Molecules 2023, 28, 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020587

AMA Style

Flores-Aguilar LÁ, Cueto-Escobedo J, Puga-Olguín A, Olmos-Vázquez OJ, Rosas-Sánchez GU, Bernal-Morales B, Rodríguez-Landa JF. Behavioral Despair Is Blocked by the Flavonoid Chrysin (5,7-Dihydroxyflavone) in a Rat Model of Surgical Menopause. Molecules. 2023; 28(2):587. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020587

Chicago/Turabian Style

Flores-Aguilar, Luis Ángel, Jonathan Cueto-Escobedo, Abraham Puga-Olguín, Oscar Jerónimo Olmos-Vázquez, Gilberto Uriel Rosas-Sánchez, Blandina Bernal-Morales, and Juan Francisco Rodríguez-Landa. 2023. "Behavioral Despair Is Blocked by the Flavonoid Chrysin (5,7-Dihydroxyflavone) in a Rat Model of Surgical Menopause" Molecules 28, no. 2: 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28020587

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop