Information Authenticity and Tourism Destination Image Formation through Computer-Mediated Communication: A Proposed Framework ^†

Abstract

As part of the organic image, the proper use of travel selfies could elevate the tourism industry to the next level of improved products and services that align with tourists’ needs. However, due to the rise of fake reviewers and tourists who write reviews for personal incentives, the authenticity behind every post and how it could shape the destination image in the eye of prospective tourists remains sparse within the academic literature. Therefore, this study attempts to propose a comprehensive framework highlighting the role of information authenticity towards tourism destination image formation within online computer-mediated communication by incorporating travel selfies as a medium for information sharing.

1. Introduction

Visualize the following scenario: You and your spouse have decided to finalize your honeymoon trip as a newlywed couple. Given that your spouse is a selfie enthusiast and an active Instagram user, you both decide to look for island trip options on Instagram to make your voyage unique and snap exciting travel selfies for the memories. Suddenly, a selfie post pops up on your Instagram wall. Someone who has recently visited that island’s restaurant posted a selfie backed to a sight of a ‘Roti Canai’ (Malaysian local flatbread) seller spitting on the dish and hashtagged the post #worsttripever. You zoom into the selfie to ensure what you see is true, and certainly that freaks you out! However, when you do a quick read of the comments section, the authors mention that it is just the style of the seller who whistles while making the ‘Roti Canai’, which is associated with the shop name ‘Roti Canai Whistle’. After seeing such a post, will you and your partner cancel your trip? Or will you ignore the post and plan ahead since someone unknown had posted it? Furthermore, regardless of whether true or not, will that specific selfie post create a bad image of the island in your mind?

In light of the above situation, social media undeniably appears to be one of the fastest platforms for disseminating information to people of various ages. With the support of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and the internet of things, the chain of information transfer is now effective, and more and more people are engaging in social networks to share their pieces of information. The present study strongly believes that travel selfies taken by actual tourists during their trips and posted on social media can be transformed into destination brands that can benefit prospective tourists and destination hosts.

Tamaki [1], based on previous studies, affirmed that image-based posts could influence tourists’ decision-making and post-travel psychological judgments about tourism destinations. Hence, being part of the organic image, the proper use of travel selfies within the tourism industry could elevate the industry to the next level of improved products and services that align with tourists’ needs. However, due to the rise of fake reviewers and tourists who write reviews for personal incentives [2], the authenticity behind every post and how it could shape the destination image in the eye of prospective tourists remains sparse within the academic literature. On the one hand, although false information sharing within the tourism context could tarnish the image of any tourism attraction, less empirical work has been conducted within the tourism literature highlighting the context of information authenticity within the online CMC and its relationship with the destination image. Iordanova and Stainton [3], with their research on travel blogs, have empirically proven the relationship between trust in the content shared by bloggers and cognitive and affective image formations among local tourists. On the other hand, studies in the literature have stated that the context of authenticity within the tourism realm is shapeless and greatly depends on the area of investigation. Nevertheless, a comprehensive framework combining the context of information authenticity and destination image formation incorporating travel selfies, evaluated through the eye of tourists, remains novel for exploration within the tourism literature. Therefore, the present study attempts to propose a framework highlighting the role of information authenticity towards tourism destination image formation within online computer-mediated communication by incorporating travel selfies as a medium for information sharing.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Computer-Mediated Communication

CMC has received attention from various fields and much from communication research. Eun and Soo [4] noted that CMC is a term that encompasses multiple forms of human communication through networked computers, which can be synchronous or asynchronous and involve one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many exchanges of text, audio, and/or video messages. This covers the entire circle of human communication nature. To be precise, this paper refers only to CMC on social media platforms addressing the current communication trend. Social media is one of the hubs that ultimately assists the communication fostered not only in terms of the number of users but also through a significant number of platforms [5]. The growth of new communication technology has brought transformations to the communicative potential, and the dawn of social media has opened up more significant perspectives for interpersonal and organizational communication [6]. Allied with the upsurge of fake news, generally, users do not stick to any single social media platform but go through numerous platforms based on trends [7], and information users will have to rely on their verdict because it is open for anyone to recommend anything online [8].

2.2. Travel Selfies and Social Media

The Oxford dictionary first introduced the universal concept of the selfie in 2013, defining selfies as a photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and shared via social media. The definition establishes the strong tie between selfies and social media sharing behavior. Dinhopl and Gretzel [9] indicated that selfies are ‘not confined to the single type of technology or genre of photos or videos but categorized by the desire to frame the “self” in a picture taken to be shared with online audience travel’ (p. 127). Understanding the changes brought in by technology in this information edge, the view on selfies asserted by Dinhopl and Gretzel [9] seems agreeable. Paris and Pietschnig’s [10] study appeared to be the first to define selfies as ‘the imbrications and construction of the self within a network of actors’ within the tourism literature.

Authors have associated their arguments by relating travel selfies to Larsen’s [11] stand on digital photography, as it could be represented in many ways depending on how they are accumulated, made memorable, and performed in a specific circumstance. Though that stand dates long ago, it seems logical with the trend that appears as a norm in our daily routine. Establishing the link between social media and selfies, Dinholp and Gretzel [9] and Senft and Baym [12] have supported that internet-enabled smartphones primarily contribute to the popularity of selfies these days with front-facing cameras and photograph-based social media platforms. Across the globe, the selfie phenomenon is indeed becoming a trend. Lyu [13] made it clear that social media users will engage in self-presentation, while Canniford and Rokka [14] noted that this platform also serves as a space for consumer brands. Instagram seems to be one of the popular sites for selfies and travel selfies. It contains several layers of auto-generated data (geotags and timestamps), user-added data (hashtags), and user-added data (comments and likes) [15], which benefit both users and business stakeholders. Inadvertently, with the rise of social channels, tourists can now instantly share their travel selfies, experience, and travel knowledge [13]. This way, it is crystal clear that the advent of travel selfies as a communication tool is becoming a social norm, and the information shared in a particular post by tourists to be gazed at by both known and unknown peers can educate them about the good and the bad of a specific destination.

2.3. Destination Image

Destination image is never a new subject, as it has been well discussed since the 1970s in many mediums. Yet today, the research on destination images is still evolving and will continue to grow due to the development brought in by technology. Scholars have mutually agreed on the definition by Crompton [16] of destination image as ‘the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that a person has towards a destination’ (p. 19). The tourist’s image formation model established by Fakeye and Crampton [17] (p. 11) undoubtedly displays that the tourists’ perception of or towards a particular destination can be influenced through three entries: organic image, induced image, and complex image. The formation of organic image habitually happens through information reported through newspapers, magazines, and other non-tourism information sources, while induced images form based on the tourism destination-directed information, for instance, advertisements, posters, pamphlets, and tourism-related materials. Thirdly, the image of a destination is further improved (complex image) after one has experienced the destination services and validated the existing pieces of information.

It is understood that the context of the destination image first emerges from an image that serves as a tool to impress an individual’s choice. The present study witnesses the presence of travel selfies posted on social media by actual tourists at the organic image stage, which could create the impression of prospective tourists towards a destination. Distinctively, the present study puts forward its novel idea by combining the dimensions of tourist photography, information authenticity, and its relationship towards destination image in the social media context through the eye of selfie tourists. The attributes of destination image have been introduced by renowned scholars such as cognitive image [16], affective image [18], cognitive, affective, and conative [19], holistic and attributive, functional and psychological, and common and unique [20]. Three key variables from the destination image were applied for this study: cognitive image, affective image, and overall image. Beerli and Martin [21] noted that cognitive image is the individual’s own knowledge and belief about a particular destination. Cognitive image for this study is referred to as selfies tourists’ beliefs and factual knowledge regarding Malaysian tourism destinations’ physical attributes as portrayed in travel selfies on social media. Affective image is one’s feeling toward a particular destination or an emotional response toward a destination [18,22].

Affective image for this study is referred to as a selfie tourist’s inner or subjective feelings towards Malaysian tourism destinations based on travel selfies posted on social media. The overall image of a destination is formed by both perceptual/cognitive and affective assessments [23].

2.4. Information Authenticity

A review of the literature on authenticity provides an outlook that the context of authenticity is shapeless and entirely depends on its committed context. Martin [24] stated that instead of delving into the definition of authenticity, researchers should look at how it can be used. In contemporary modern society, the status of what is and is not authentic is the result of manipulated interpretation [25], and it can be understood that facilities are ‘commodified’ to fit the present market needs.

Therefore, it is worth noting that the context of ‘information authenticity’ within the online scape involving tourist communication and destination image formation is novel to be researched; nonetheless, significant works have been noticed in communication and computer behavior research. Introducing information authenticity as a potential antecedent for destination image in this study, Gunn [26] has affirmed since then that one should first understand the factors that influence destination image formation. This will ease the process of understanding the target market [27], as tourists are keen on information search regardless of platforms. The literature has been updated with some prominent antecedents such as information sources, past experience, culture prior to visitation, race, age, socio-demographic factors, motivation, corporate image, destination personality, destination familiarity, and many more [16,17,21,23,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35] However, one undiscovered possible contributing aspect is the notion of ‘truthfulness of information shared and the authenticity in the wake of information’ conveyed explicitly in the social media that occurs freely without any screening. With the assumption that information authenticity could be an antecedent that influences destination image within the computer-mediated communication context involving travel selfies, this study managed to look further into the context of authenticity within the study scope.

Few scholars have developed their works in the area of communication, namely, authenticity in tourism [36], authenticity in social media communication [37], social media authenticity [38], brand authenticity [39], and brand authenticity scale [40] . However, Gilpin et al [37] offered a paradigm that determines authenticity in the social media context comprising four factors: authority, engagement, identity, and transparency, which seems to suit the current study’s objectives.

3. Research Framework

Figure 1 refers to the multi-dimensional framework designed for the present study by incorporating online computer-mediated communication, information authenticity, destination image, and travel selfies.

In this study, information authenticity is a reflective variable that is supported by information authority, authors’ identity, engagement, and transparency. With information authenticity established, this study anticipates an impact on cognitive image development and affective image creation, which will influence overall image formation. Innovatively, this study incorporates travel selfies into the research by utilizing travel selfies as stimuli to evaluate the outcome of cognitive image and affective image development towards overall image formation.

Hypothesis Formation

As research on destination image evolves with the rise of technology, social media, and user-generated content, Rubin [41] stated that the world has begun to eye the rise of disinformation, and in the tourism realm, fake reviews are never an exception. Should the information shared on social media by some irresponsible user be forged, this will undoubtedly contribute to the erosion of the destination image of any particular tourism attraction. Roig [42] added that tourists’ judgment on authenticity is often self-related. Parallel to that, this study observes the dimension of information authenticity through selfie tourists’ beliefs towards the travel selfies and information posted by actual tourists on social media. Aligned with the aim of this study to explore how an image is formed in the eye of tourists after viewing travel selfies on social media based on the influence of information authenticity, the study by Iordanova and Stainton [3], which has proven the relationship between trust in the content shared by bloggers towards cognitive and affective image formation, appears noteworthy to the assumption put forward by the present study. Hence, the following hypotheses were proposed:

H1: 

Information authenticity significantly influences cognitive image.

H2: 

Information authenticity significantly influences affective image.

H3: 

Information authenticity significantly influences overall destination image.

Contrary to the previous assumptions, the relationship between cognitive image, affective image, and overall image has been vastly explored and established (see [3,21,23,29,34,43,44,45,46,47,48]). Hence, the following hypotheses were proposed based on the empirical evidence from previous research.

H4: 

Cognitive image significantly influences overall destination image.

H5: 

Affective image significantly influences overall destination image.

H6: 

Cognitive image significantly influences affective image.

4. Methodology

Figure 2 depicts the practical approach taken in this study to reach the proposed framework. Beginning with problem identification, the study's objective was set to propose a framework highlighting the role of information authenticity towards tourism destination image formation within online computer-mediated communication by incorporating travel selfies. Subsequently, an extensive literature search was conducted by first delving into the three key themes (travel selfies, information authenticity, and destination image). Relevant literature in the area was reviewed, and all particular variables were identified. The variables found were cross-checked with the needs of the present study, and the relationship between variables was prudently observed. Based on previous findings and gaps, the present study established assumptions and hypotheses to lead the study further. As a final point, the conceptual framework was developed in response to the gap within the literature considering the study’s hypotheses. The study’s objective was revisited to ensure that the proposed framework addresses the problem aimed to be solved.

5. Conclusions

Computer-mediated communication is a growing area that sees both boon and bane. Today, with the rise of multiple social media platforms, people in general and tourists have the chance to write, capture, and share every angle of their thoughts for the public view. The receivers consume the information at large without hassle, anytime, anywhere. This is true with the dawn of visual information, travel photography, and travel selfies posted instantly on social media. Though it is convincing that destination managers are receiving free promotions, information falsification, or the state of sharing inauthentic information, is genuinely saddening. The failure to address this situation will alter the destination image and redirect the prospective tourist’s intention and travel decision making.

First and foremost, the proposed comprehensive framework in this study linking the context of information authenticity and destination image formation incorporating travel selfies, evaluated through the eye of tourists, will undoubtedly be a novel contribution to the CMC and tourism communication literature.

Within the CMC literature, this paper is expected to shed light by replacing text-only-based conversation popularized in the past with the rise of image-based online conversation, mainly travel selfies. Secondly, the empirically proven context of the proposed framework is expected to verify the capability of information authenticity as a potential antecedent for tourism destination image formation. Thirdly, addressing the need for a framework by Rivera [49] to understand the rise of disinformation within the servicescape, the proposed framework is expected to be timely and can be adapted in the various areas within the service industry considering the target market, business scope, and communication scape. To be truthful, the rise of travel selfies as a potent influencing agent has been widely spoken about in popular media. Unfortunately, in the academic literature, travel selfie research, which is still at its beginning stage, is perceived as a product of narcissism and attraction shading elements (see [50,51]). Thusly, this study is expected to be an eye-opener for future researchers involving selfies for destination management. As such, the proposed framework is anticipated to craft a new path for the tourism destination management realm.