Instruments

39 pages, 8822 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

A Review of Basic Energy Reconstruction Techniques in Liquid Xenon and Argon Detectors for Dark Matter and Neutrino Physics Using NEST

by Matthew Szydagis, Grant A. Block, Collin Farquhar, Alexander J. Flesher, Ekaterina S. Kozlova, Cecilia Levy, Emily A. Mangus, Michael Mooney, Justin Mueller, Gregory R. C. Rischbieter and Andrew K. Schwartz

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010013 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5274

Abstract

Detectors based upon the noble elements, especially liquid xenon as well as liquid argon, as both single- and dual-phase types, require reconstruction of the energies of interacting particles, both in the field of direct detection of dark matter (weakly interacting massive particles WIMPs, [...] Read more.

Detectors based upon the noble elements, especially liquid xenon as well as liquid argon, as both single- and dual-phase types, require reconstruction of the energies of interacting particles, both in the field of direct detection of dark matter (weakly interacting massive particles WIMPs, axions, etc.) and in neutrino physics. Experimentalists, as well as theorists who reanalyze/reinterpret experimental data, have used a few different techniques over the past few decades. In this paper, we review techniques based on solely the primary scintillation channel, the ionization or secondary channel available at non-zero drift electric fields, and combined techniques that include a simple linear combination and weighted averages, with a brief discussion of the application of profile likelihood, maximum likelihood, and machine learning. Comparing results for electron recoils (beta and gamma interactions) and nuclear recoils (primarily from neutrons) from the Noble Element Simulation Technique (NEST) simulation to available data, we confirm that combining all available information generates higher-precision means, lower widths (energy resolution), and more symmetric shapes (approximately Gaussian) especially at keV-scale energies, with the symmetry even greater when thresholding is addressed. Near thresholds, bias from upward fluctuations matters. For MeV-GeV scales, if only one channel is utilized, an ionization-only-based energy scale outperforms scintillation; channel combination remains beneficial. We discuss here what major collaborations use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Production and Detection in Noble Liquid Detectors)

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30 pages, 5083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Sustainable Slit Jet FTIR Spectrometer for Hydrate Complexes and Beyond

by Hannes C. Gottschalk, Taija L. Fischer, Volker Meyer, Reinhard Hildebrandt, Ulrich Schmitt and Martin A. Suhm

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010012 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3610

Abstract

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy of cold molecules and clusters in supersonic slit jet expansions complements and extends more sensitive action spectroscopy techniques and provides important reference data for the latter. We describe how its major drawback, large substance and carrier gas [...] Read more.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy of cold molecules and clusters in supersonic slit jet expansions complements and extends more sensitive action spectroscopy techniques and provides important reference data for the latter. We describe how its major drawback, large substance and carrier gas consumption, can be alleviated by one to two orders of magnitude via direct and continuous recycling of the gas mixture. This is achieved by a combination of dry rotary lobe and screw pump compression. The signal-to-noise ratio is boosted by the established buffered giant gas pulse technique with full interferogram synchronization. The buildup of water impurities typically limits the recycling gain, but is turned into a feature for the study of hydrate complexes of volatile molecules. Continuous operation with a single gas filling over several days becomes practical and useful. Decadic absorbances in the low ppm range are detectable and the mid infrared range can be recorded simultaneously with the near infrared. The less straightforward hydration number assignment of spectral features in direct absorption spectroscopy is supported by a gradual water buildup at a rate of less than 0.5 mg/h. A recent reassignment proposal for the water dimer OH stretching spectrum is refuted and vibrational spectra of vacuum-isolated

^{18}

O-water clusters are presented for the first time. Methanol docking on asymmetric ketones is used to illustrate the advantages and limitations of the recycling concept. Previous assignments of the hydrate complex of 1-phenylethanol are confirmed. Additional features of the setup await testing and refinement, but the recycling technique already substantially widens the applicability of direct absorption spectroscopy of neutral molecular clusters. It may be attractive for other high-throughput jet spectrometers. Full article

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15 pages, 10418 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Validation of a Fast and Accurate Magnetic Tracker Operating in the Environmental Field

by Valerio Biancalana, Roberto Cecchi, Piero Chessa, Marco Mandalà, Giuseppe Bevilacqua, Yordanka Dancheva and Antonio Vigilante

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010011 - 05 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2755

Abstract

We characterize the performance of a system based on a magnetoresistor array. This instrument is developed to map the magnetic field, and to track a dipolar magnetic source in the presence of a static homogeneous field. The position and orientation of the magnetic [...] Read more.

We characterize the performance of a system based on a magnetoresistor array. This instrument is developed to map the magnetic field, and to track a dipolar magnetic source in the presence of a static homogeneous field. The position and orientation of the magnetic source with respect to the sensor frame is retrieved together with the orientation of the frame with respect to the environmental field. A nonlinear best-fit procedure is used, and its precision, time performance, and reliability are analyzed. This analysis is performed in view of the practical application for which the system is designed that is an eye-tracking diagnostics and rehabilitative tool for medical purposes, which require high speed (≥100 Sa/s) and sub-millimetric spatial resolution. A throughout investigation on the results makes it possible to list several observations, suggestions, and hints, which will be useful in the design of similar setups. Full article

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13 pages, 2921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New High-Throughput Focused MeV Ion-Beam Analysis Setup

by Sören Möller, Daniel Höschen, Sina Kurth, Gerwin Esser, Albert Hiller, Christian Scholtysik, Christian Dellen and Christian Linsmeier

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010010 - 28 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2535

Abstract

The analysis of material composition by ion-beam analysis (IBA) is becoming a standard method, similar to electron microscopy. A pool of IBA methods exists, from which the combination of particle-induced-X-ray emission (PIXE), particle induced gamma-ray analysis (PIGE), nuclear-reaction-analysis (NRA), and Rutherford-backscattering-spectrometry (RBS) provides [...] Read more.

The analysis of material composition by ion-beam analysis (IBA) is becoming a standard method, similar to electron microscopy. A pool of IBA methods exists, from which the combination of particle-induced-X-ray emission (PIXE), particle induced gamma-ray analysis (PIGE), nuclear-reaction-analysis (NRA), and Rutherford-backscattering-spectrometry (RBS) provides the most complete analysis over the whole periodic table in a single measurement. Yet, for a highly resolved and accurate IBA analysis, a sophisticated technical setup is required integrating the detectors, beam optics, and sample arrangement. A new end-station developed and installed in Forschungszentrum Jülich provides these capabilities in combination with high sample throughput and result accuracy. Mechanical tolerances limit the device accuracy to 3% for RBS. Continuous pumping enables 5 × 10⁻⁸ mbar base pressure with vibration amplitudes < 0.1 µm. The beam optics achieves a demagnification of 24–34, suitable for µ-beam analysis. An in-vacuum manipulator enables scanning 50 × 50 mm² sample areas with 10 nm accuracy. The setup features the above-mentioned IBA detectors, enabling a broad range of analysis applications such as the operando analysis of batteries or the post-mortem analysis of plasma-exposed samples with up to 3000 discrete points per day. Custom apertures and energy resolutions down to 11 keV enable separation of Fe and Cr in RBS. This work presents the technical solutions together with the quantification of these challenges and their success in the form of a technical reference. Full article

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14 pages, 2891 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Space Charge Effects in Noble-Liquid Calorimeters and Time Projection Chambers

by Sandro Palestini

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010009 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2041

Abstract

The subject of space charge in ionization detectors is reviewed, showing how the observations and the formalism used to describe the effects have evolved, starting with applications to calorimeters and reaching recent, large time-projection chambers. General scaling laws, and different ways to present [...] Read more.

The subject of space charge in ionization detectors is reviewed, showing how the observations and the formalism used to describe the effects have evolved, starting with applications to calorimeters and reaching recent, large time-projection chambers. General scaling laws, and different ways to present and model the effects are presented. The relations between space-charge effects and the boundary conditions imposed on the side faces of the detector are discussed, together with a design solution that mitigates some of the effects. The implications of the relative size of drift length and transverse detector size are illustrated. Calibration methods are briefly discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Argon Detectors: Instrumentation and Applications)

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32 pages, 15598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

HTS Accelerator Magnet and Conductor Development in Europe

by Lucio Rossi and Carmine Senatore

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010008 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 5696

Abstract

In view of the preparation for a post-LHC collider, in 2010 the high-energy physics (HEP) community started to discuss various options, including the use of HTS for very high-field dipoles. Therefore, a small program was begun in Europe that aimed at exploring the [...] Read more.

In view of the preparation for a post-LHC collider, in 2010 the high-energy physics (HEP) community started to discuss various options, including the use of HTS for very high-field dipoles. Therefore, a small program was begun in Europe that aimed at exploring the possibility of using HTS for accelerator-quality magnets. Based on various EU-funded programs, though at modest levels, it has enabled the European community of accelerator magnet research to start getting experience in HTS and address a few issues. The program was based on the use of REBa₂Cu₃O_7−x (REBCO) tapes to form 10 kA Roebel cables to wind small dipoles of 30–40 mm aperture in the 5 T range. The dipoles are designed to be later inserted in a background dipole field (in Nb₃Sn), to reach eventually a field level in the 16–20 T range, beyond the reach of Low Temperature Superconductors (LTS). The program is currently underway: more than 1 km of high-performance tape (J_e > 500 A/mm² at 20 T, 4.2 K) has been manufactured and characterized, various 30 m long Roebel cables have been assembled and validated up to 13 kA, a few dipoles have been wound and tested, reaching 4.5 T in stand-alone (while a dipole made from flat race track coils exceeded 5 T using stacked tape cable), and tests in background field are being organized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Superconductivity for Particle Accelerator)

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2 pages, 179 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Acknowledgment to Reviewers of Instruments in 2020

by Instruments Editorial Office

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010007 - 29 Jan 2021

Viewed by 1708

Abstract

Peer review is the driving force of journal development, and reviewers are gatekeepers who ensure that Instruments maintains its standards for the high quality of its published papers [...] Full article

17 pages, 12434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applications and Perspectives of Ultrasonic Multi-Gas Analysis with Simultaneous Flowmetry

by Gregory Hallewell, John Dingley, Martin Doubek, Robin Feuillassier, Sergey Katunin, Koichi Nagai, David Robinson, Alexandre Rozanov, David Williams and Vaclav Vacek

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010006 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2706

Abstract

We have developed ultrasonic instrumentation for simultaneous flow and composition measurement in a variety of gas mixtures. Flow and composition are respectively derived from measurements of the difference and average of sound transit times in opposite directions in a flowing process gas. We [...] Read more.

We have developed ultrasonic instrumentation for simultaneous flow and composition measurement in a variety of gas mixtures. Flow and composition are respectively derived from measurements of the difference and average of sound transit times in opposite directions in a flowing process gas. We have developed a sound velocity-based algorithm to compensate for the effects of additional gases, allowing the concentrations of a pair of gases of primary interest to be acoustically measured on top of a varying baseline from ‘third party’ gases whose concentrations in the multi-gas mixture are measured by other means. Several instruments are used in the CERN ATLAS experiment. Three monitor C₃F₈, (R218), and CO₂ coolant leaks into N₂-purged environmental envelopes. Precision in molar concentration of better than 2 × 10⁻⁵ is routinely seen in mixtures of C₃F₈ in N₂ in the presence of varying known concentrations of CO₂. Further instruments monitor air ingress and C₃F₈ vapor flow (at high mass flows around 1.1 kg s⁻¹) in the 60 kW thermosiphon C₃F₈ evaporative cooling recirculator. This instrumentation and analysis technique, targeting binary pairs of gases of interest in multi-gas mixtures, is promising for mixtures of anesthetic gases, particularly in the developing area of xenon anesthesia. Full article

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23 pages, 2553 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Luminescence Response and Quenching Models for Heavy Ions of 0.5 keV to 1 GeV/n in Liquid Argon and Xenon

by Akira Hitachi

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010005 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2908

Abstract

Biexcitonic collision kinetics with prescribed diffusion in the ion track core have been applied for scintillation response due to heavy ions in liquid argon. The quenching factors q = E_L/E, where E is the ion energy and E_L [...] Read more.

Biexcitonic collision kinetics with prescribed diffusion in the ion track core have been applied for scintillation response due to heavy ions in liquid argon. The quenching factors q = E_L/E, where E is the ion energy and E_L is the energy expended for luminescence, for 33.5 MeV/n ¹⁸O and 31.9 MeV/n ³⁶Ar ions in liquid Ar at zero field are found to be 0.73 and 0.46, compared with measured values of 0.59 and 0.46, respectively. The quenching model is also applied for 80–200 keV Pb recoils in α-decay, background candidates in direct dark matter searches, in liquid argon. Values obtained are ~0.09. A particular feature of Birks’ law has been found and exploited in evaluating the electronic quenching factor q_el in liquid Xe. The total quenching factors q_T for 0.5–20 keV Xe recoils needed for weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) searches are estimated to be ~0.12–0.14, and those for Pb recoils of 103 and 169 keV are 0.08 and 0.09, respectively. In the calculation, the nuclear quenching factor q_nc = E_η/E, where E_η is the energy available for the electronic excitation, is obtained by Lindhard theory and a semi-empirical theory by Ling and Knipp. The electronic linear energy transfer plays a key role. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light Production and Detection in Noble Liquid Detectors)

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24 pages, 2227 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Wavelength Shifters for Applications in Liquid Argon Detectors

by Marcin Kuźniak and Andrzej M. Szelc

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010004 - 31 Dec 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5089

Abstract

Wavelength shifters and their applications for liquid argon detectors have been a subject of extensive R&D procedures over the past decade. This work reviews the most recent results in this field. We compare the optical properties and usage details together with the associated [...] Read more.

Wavelength shifters and their applications for liquid argon detectors have been a subject of extensive R&D procedures over the past decade. This work reviews the most recent results in this field. We compare the optical properties and usage details together with the associated challenges for various wavelength shifting solutions. We discuss the current status and potential future R&D directions for the main classes of wavelength shifters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Argon Detectors: Instrumentation and Applications)

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17 pages, 1630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast, Cheap, and Scalable Magnetic Tracker with an Array of Magnetoresistors

by Valerio Biancalana, Roberto Cecchi, Piero Chessa, Giuseppe Bevilacqua, Yordanka Dancheva and Antonio Vigilante

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010003 - 28 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2957

Abstract

We present the hardware of a cheap multi-sensor magnetometric setup, where a relatively large set of magnetic field components is measured in several positions by calibrated magnetoresistive detectors. The setup is developed to map the (inhomogeneous) field generated by a known magnetic source, [...] Read more.

We present the hardware of a cheap multi-sensor magnetometric setup, where a relatively large set of magnetic field components is measured in several positions by calibrated magnetoresistive detectors. The setup is developed to map the (inhomogeneous) field generated by a known magnetic source, which is measured and then discerned from the background (homogeneous) geomagnetic field. The data output from this hardware can be successfully and reliably used to retrieve the position and orientation of the magnetic source with respect to the sensor frame, together with the orientation of the frame with respect to the environmental field. Possible applications of the setup are briefly discussed, and a synthetic description of the methods of data elaboration and analysis is provided. Full article

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15 pages, 1008 KiB

Open AccessReview

Calibration of Calorimetric Measurement in a Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber

by Tingjun Yang

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010002 - 26 Dec 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2653

Abstract

The liquid argon time projection chamber provides high-resolution event images and excellent calorimetric resolution for studying neutrino physics and searching for beyond-standard-model physics. In this article, we review the main physics processes that affect detector response, including the electronics and field responses, space [...] Read more.

The liquid argon time projection chamber provides high-resolution event images and excellent calorimetric resolution for studying neutrino physics and searching for beyond-standard-model physics. In this article, we review the main physics processes that affect detector response, including the electronics and field responses, space charge effects, electron attachment to impurities, diffusion, and recombination. We describe methods to measure those effects, which are used to calibrate the detector response and convert the measured raw analog-to-digital converter (ADC) counts into the original energy deposition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Argon Detectors: Instrumentation and Applications)

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16 pages, 5751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Electric Field Detector on Board the China Seismo Electromagnetic Satellite—In-Orbit Results and Validation

by Piero Diego, Jianping Huang, Mirko Piersanti, Davide Badoni, Zhima Zeren, Rui Yan, Gianmaria Rebustini, Roberto Ammendola, Maurizio Candidi, Yi-Bing Guan, Jungang Lei, Giuseppe Masciantonio, Igor Bertello, Cristian De Santis, Pietro Ubertini, Xuhui Shen and Piergiorgio Picozza

Instruments 2021, 5(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments5010001 - 24 Dec 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3621

Abstract

The aim of this work is to validate the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite 01 (CSES-01) Electric Field Detector (EFD) measurements through the analysis of the instrument response to various inputs: (a) geomagnetic field variations, (b) plasma density depletions, and (c) electromagnetic signals from natural [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to validate the China Seismo-Electromagnetic Satellite 01 (CSES-01) Electric Field Detector (EFD) measurements through the analysis of the instrument response to various inputs: (a) geomagnetic field variations, (b) plasma density depletions, and (c) electromagnetic signals from natural and artificial sources such as Schumann resonance and VLF (Very Low Frequency) antennas. The knowledge of the geomagnetic induced electric field

v_{s} \times B

(where

v_{s}

is the satellite speed and B and the local magnetic field), and the plasma variations effect, described by the Orbit Motion Limited (OML) theory, are key parameters to determine the expected theoretical values of the EFD sensors potentials data. Based on the CSES on-board measurements of plasma parameters and geomagnetic field, a direct quantitative validation is presented. In addition, the electromagnetic signals detection capability is checked but only qualitatively confirmed, since the ionospheric complexity does not allow an accurate theoretical computation of waves modulation. The quantitative comparison highlights the very good agreement between observed and theoretical potentials values during average condition. Conversely, in case of strong electric fields, the OML theory shows partial inability in reproducing the actual space plasma conditions resulting in a reduced theoretical values reliability. Finally, both natural and artificial electromagnetic signals are satisfactorily identified showing a reliable sensitivity in different frequency bands. Full article

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Instruments, Volume 5, Issue 1 (March 2021) – 13 articles

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