1. Introduction
Most electrified locomotives collect electrical traction energy through sliding electrical contact between the pantograph on the locomotive roof and the overhead catenary along the rail (known as the pantograph–catenary system) [
1]. During the train operation, traction current flows from the electrical substations adjacent to the track, through the copper catenary wire and the graphite contact strip on the pantograph, and into the train body for traction power supply and onboard power consumption [
2].
The pantograph strip and catenary wire should maintain a smooth dynamic interaction to guarantee the stability of the traction power transmission. During actual operation, however, the pantograph will be momentarily detached from the catenary line, a phenomenon known as “pantograph–catenary offline”. It may be brought on by the vehicle body vibration, imperfect contact surfaces, traversing a neutral region, and other factors [
3,
4]. As soon as the pantograph strip and catenary wire separate, a conductive channel made of ionizing gas, known as plasma, is created due to the high voltage (HV) breakdown crossing the small air gap, which results in an electrical arcing discharge. The materials used in pantograph strips and catenary wires will be ablated by the heat and electro-corrosion effects of arc discharge [
5]. More importantly, it also leads to undesirable high-intensity and broadband electromagnetic emissions, which will cause broadband conducted and radiated electromagnetic disturbance (EMD) to the sensitive equipment in vehicles, as well as to traction power and signaling systems [
6,
7,
8].
In recent years, the pantograph–catenary (PC) interaction has become more violent as train speed increases on electrified railways, causing the PC detachment arc to become a prominent phenomenon [
9], along with the simultaneously increasing traction power, which causes a gradual increase in the intensity and occurrence frequency of electromagnetic emissions generated by the arc. Consequently, PC arcing has become the primary source compromising the electromagnetic safety in the railway [
10]. In extreme EMD circumstances, it will damage or degrade the operating performance of the onboard equipment and even potentially compromise the driving safety of the electrified locomotives, particularly the high-speed trains [
11]. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the mechanism, formation process, and electromagnetic characteristics of the disturbances caused by PC offline arcing in order to enhance the safety of electrified train operation.
Extensive research has been conducted to analyze EMDs caused by PC arcing using laboratory and on-site measurements, as well as simulation modeling methods. This research is crucial for understanding the causes and characteristics of PC arcing electromagnetic interference. In early laboratory measurements, researchers simulated PC arcing by controlling PC separation and recorded time-domain waveforms of arcing voltage, current, and electromagnetic field. Analysis showed that both conducted and radiated EMDs generated by the PC approaching transient are much larger than those generated by the PC separation, which have a negligible effect on onboard electronic equipment [
12]. Midya et al. presented an experimental investigation of PC arcing and its effects on the AC traction system, which shows that a net DC component is generated and can be reduced by running the train at a lower power factor with additional inductance, while also noting that high frequency conducted and radiated emissions increase with line speed and require further investigation due to the challenging electromagnetic environment [
13]. According to Ref. [
14], arcing discharge between PCs acts not only as a stand-alone transient pulse in the traction circuit but also as broadband stimulation to the electromagnetic environment of the entire railway system. Recently, researchers measured the electrical properties of PC arcing and its influence on current quality using a test system developed to recreate the PC arcing event [
15]. They also designed a fourth-order Hilbert curve fractal antenna to receive the electromagnetic radiation signal generated by the PC arcing. The results showed that the radiated electromagnetic pulse is almost synchronous with the arc discharge voltage transient and concentrated in two frequency bands of 0–40 MHz and 60–100 MHz [
16]. Ma et al. conducted measurements in a reverberation chamber and used numerical modeling to assess the radiated disturbance caused by pantograph arcing and the associated electromagnetic power received by sensitive equipment [
17]. Ref. [
18] proposed an aerial catenary nonuniform transmission line model to predict the longitudinal propagation characteristic of pantograph arcing electromagnetic waves based on practical measurement data and EM field theory. This model was verified by the consistency of theoretical results and practical measurement at 0.5 MHz. Tang et al. measured and analyzed the interference caused by PC arcing on the traction control unit (TCU) speed sensor of a high-speed train, and suggested the use of Ni–Zn ferrite magnetic rings on the sensor cable to suppress the overvoltage and electromagnetic radiation caused by the PC arcing [
19]. Another study investigated the electromagnetic interference caused by PC arcing to the airport navigation stations, which was affected by changes in the speed of the high-speed train. The researchers measured and analyzed the electric field intensity of the PC arcing generated at the common and neutral section of the power supply line at different train speeds, and also calculated the maximum train speed that would not interfere with the navigation signal [
20]. Ref. [
21] explored potential new applications of unintentional signals emitted by electrified railway infrastructure based on experimental measurements. Two proposals were introduced: energy harvesting from low-frequency electromagnetic interference signals and a new non-destructive inspection method using VHF signals from the sliding contact between PC.
In recent years, research on electromagnetic interference caused by pantograph arcing and related electromagnetic protection has received increasing attention, and the application of some new methods has been very inspiring for dealing with the problem. The Amplitude Probability Distribution (APD) of time-domain measured data is computed to identify impulsive waveforms that can cause errors in radio reception and can be used to evaluate the degradation caused by impulsive noise to digital communication systems [
22,
23]. Based on experimental results of PC arcing in high-speed railway, a streamer discharge model was established to investigate the characteristics of the EMD inside and outside the locomotive body [
24]. The study found that the off-line discharge between the PC has two discharge forms with different discharge stages and characteristics, which cause significant disturbance to the communication equipment installed on the top of the locomotive. Song et al. established a machine learning-based prediction model to accurately predict the coupling coefficient between PC arcing and GSM-R antenna while reducing simulation time. They used a data set constructed by Latin hypercube sampling and incorporating the Radial Based Function, Generalized Regression Neural Network, and Modular Neural Network [
25]. A mathematical model of the electromagnetic radiation noise waveform was established in [
26] using the least square method, taking into account the symmetry and convergence of the radiation waveform. This model is in good agreement with experimental results. In our previous study [
27], a PC arcing simulation device with an alternative single-pendulum electrode was built in the laboratory, and we investigated the different effects of the vertical approaching and lateral sliding on the electromagnetic emission characteristics, which explains the effect mechanism of the train travel speed on the radiated emission from PC arcing. However, due to the randomness of the discharge process itself and the impact of external factors such as airflow and temperature, the dispersion of PC arcing test results in the measurement is very dramatic. The variation of the measurement result with conditions may not be as large as that caused by this randomness, resulting in the measurement data being submerged by randomness, which is very unfavorable for the study of arcing disturbance characteristics.
Although the characteristics and influencing factors of EMD produced by PC arcing discharge have been thoroughly examined, the mechanism underlying it has not been fully explained. In terms of electromagnetic emission, the amplitude of the radiation field produced by the transient discharge current is proportional to the current derivative, dI/dt. The radiation field resulting from PC arcing is determined by the current’s time-domain variation and the “antenna structure” composed of the PC and train body. Therefore, the PC arcing current acts as the excitation source for electromagnetic radiation, and understanding its formation process and influencing factors is crucial to comprehend the EMD characteristics. Investigating the time-domain characteristics of PC discharge current is essential to understanding the generation principle and characteristics of the electromagnetic field. However, research in this area is limited due to challenges on in-site measurement of PC arcing discharge and the inherent randomness of the discharge current, making it difficult to grasp the physical laws.
This study focused on the statistical analysis of the time characteristics of the transient pulsed current waveforms collected during laboratory experiments. Several reference models are used to determine the statistical distribution of the pulsed current waveform parameters, such as the pulse amplitude, rise time, and pulse interval time. Using a fitting method, the variation laws of the distribution function parameters are extracted with varying the applied voltage and electrode gap spacing. On the basis of the statistical characteristics, we then consider a stochastic model of the discharge current waveform. By establishing the relationship between model parameters and waveform parameters, the model is able to directly generate the current waveforms for various arc-generating conditions. Further research may employ the simulated current waveforms as the PC arcing EMD excitation source. The paper is structured as follows:
Section 2 provides a concise description of the experimental setup and measurement arrangement, as well as defining the time characteristics of the transient EMD excitation current. In
Section 3, we present the statistical analysis of the collected current waveform. Firstly, we select the reference distribution functions to describe the probability distribution characteristics of the waveform time parameters. We then investigate the impact of different application voltages and electrode gaps on the distribution function parameters. Finally, in this section, we use a fitting method to establish a quantitative relationship between these variables.
Section 4 focuses on deriving a stochastic model of a pulsed discharge current, based on the statistical characteristics of waveform parameters obtained in the previous section. The proposed method generates current waveforms for different arcing discharge conditions and EMD severities, which are compared to measured data to validate its accuracy. Finally,
Section 5 provides a summary of the work.
2. Experimental Setup and Measured Time Characteristics
The experimental setup was built in an ultracompact anechoic chamber to examine the high-frequency behaviors generated by the arcing discharge between the pantograph strip and catenary wire (see
Figure 1 and
Figure 2). The two discharge electrodes are cut from the actual pantograph and catenary, respectively, which are the DSA200 and CTA120 models employed in the railway. A pendulum-typed moving electrode consists of a conducting pantograph strip affixed to the end of an insulated rod. The catenary wire is kept fixed and connected to a DC voltage source that provides a variable HV of up to 50 kV. When the contact strip swings down, the electric field between the pantograph strip and catenary wire grows with the reducing gap distance and finally exceeds the breakdown field strength, penetrating the air between the two electrodes and finally causing a conductive discharge path.
Due to the transient nature of the arc-generated electromagnetic disturbance, direct frequency-domain measurements based on frequency sweep techniques are not appropriate [
28,
29]. In this experiment, the time-domain waveform of the transient current from PC arcing discharge was measured using the CT-1 probe manufactured by Tektronix Company. A 1 GHz bandwidth, 20 GSa/s sampling-frequency LeCroy Waverunner 8104 digital oscilloscope was linked to the current probe via coaxial cables to acquire and record the current waveform. During the test, the oscilloscope was set as two acquisition modes: sampling rate of 10 GSa/s and acquisition time of 0.2 μs, which is enough time to record the complete current pulse of one single arc; sampling rate of 100 MSa/s and acquisition time of 10 ms when recording the repetitive series of pulses.
As shown in
Figure 3, a typical oscilloscope recording of the time evolution of a current pulse reveals two different zones: (a) the initial high-amplitude pulse response of the transient pantograph arcing, and (b) the low-frequency decaying oscillatory tail that results in additive distortion. It should be noted that the generation of the initial pulse is due to pantograph arcing, whereas the oscillations are caused by the superposition mechanism of the reflected and incident transient currents, depending on the circuit load and the electrical parameters of the arc.
Once the arcing ignites in this experiment, the voltage drop between the electrodes will not be sufficient to keep it burning. This causes the air between the pantograph strip and the catenary wire to break down repeatedly, resulting in a series of transients of rapid arcing discharge. Consequently, when the electrode approaches, the arcing discharge current behaves as a train of pulses.
Figure 4 shows the typical profile of the repeated pattern of the pulse train over a long acquisition time of 10 ms.
The repetitive fast transients caused by arc reignitions are measured in the time domain and evaluated in terms of peak amplitude, rise time, pulse width, successive time interval, and other specified current measures in IEC 61000-4-4 [
30]. In
Figure 3 and
Figure 4, the time-domain waveform parameters of interest to this study are described, and they can be interpreted as follows:
Peak amplitudes (A+ and A−), the positive and negative peak amplitudes of a single current pulse;
Rise time (tr), the time interval between the instants at which the instantaneous current value first reaches 0.1 A+ and then 0.9 A−;
Pulse width (tw), i.e., halfwave duration, the period between the instants at which the instantaneous value reaches 50% of its peak amplitude;
Pulse repetition interval (tin), the time interval between two successive pulses in a pulse train.
All these physical properties of the current waveform substantially affect the frequency bandwidth covered by the transient. Due to the poor reproducibility of the air discharge, a statistical investigation is required to better comprehend the characteristics of the disturbance excitation current. In
Section 3, statistical evaluations of the time and amplitude characteristics of the collected transient discharge currents are presented.
4. Deviation of the Stochastic Model of Arcing Currents
The fundamental concept underlying the stochastic model of the pantograph–catenary arcing discharge pulse is to construct current pulse sequences with similar statistical properties and similar shapes to the measurement results. Single pulses and continuous pulse trains are both considered in constructing the time domain waveform of the arcing current. The single pulse waveform model is constructed using the main waveform parameters obtained from the above statistical analysis to construct the single pulse waveform function, while the continuous pulse model generates a continuous long pulse sequence with statistical properties similar to the measurement results by splicing together multiple single pulses based on the obtained single pulse waveform.
Considering the bipolar characteristic of a measured single current pulse, we suggest that a typical waveform comprised of two modified double exponential functions be used to fit the single pulse, which is expressed as follows:
where
and
are the constants determined by a fitting procedure for the measured waveform,
and
are the mathematical parameters awaiting translation from the physical parameters,
tp is the zero-crossing point of the positive pulse component, and
te is the end time of the single current pulse.
The modified double exponential function (MDEF) employed in Equation (21) was introduced in Ref. [
36] and is derived from the popular double exponential pulse (DEP) function that is given by
where
is the function’s maximum,
is a modifying factor, and
α and
β are characteristic parameters. The DEP function was presented to characterize the shape features of electromagnetic pulse waveforms with
tr of several nanoseconds and
tw of tens of nanoseconds, whereas the MDEF model was proposed to characterize pulses with low
tw/
tr ratios.
Given that the rise edges of pulses acquired in some experiments are noticeably less steep than the standard DEP and their fall edges are obviously steeper, it is natural to find a modified method that squares the index in the DEP function to characterize the waveform shape by stretching the rise edge and compressing the fall edge. The MDEF is written as follows:
In practice, the physical characteristics of a pulse, typically the rise time
tr, pulse width at half maximum
tw, and fall time
tf (the time interval from 90% to 10% of the maximum value), and the function’s mathematical parameters, denoted as
α and
β, commonly need to be transformed into each other with high precision. Using the numerical solution and asymptotic formulations to make estimations, Ref. [
36] established the correlations for
βtw,
tw/
tr, and
tf/
tr with
β/
α for Equation (23), which are expressed as follows:
Suppose the probability distributions of the waveform parameters are known. In that case, four arrays of random numbers, which describe the positive amplitude (
A+), rise time (
tr), pulse width (
tw), and separation intervals (
tin) of current pulses, can be obtained through a pseudo-random number generation algorithm. The proportion ratio between the positive and negative amplitudes at different voltages, shown in
Figure 9, can be used to calculate the negative amplitude (
A−). The mathematical parameters
α and
β are calculated with Equations (24) and (25), which, in turn, can be used to estimate the fall time
tf in Equation (26) to determine
tp and
te in the following equation.
By substituting these mathematical parameters into Equation (21), the analytical equation representing the time domain variation of a single pulse can be determined.
Figure 11 illustrates the measured waveform and simulated sequence of a single arcing current pulse when the applied voltage is 20 kV and the gap spacing distance between electrodes is 5 mm. The observed waveform is depicted as a solid black line, whereas the simulated waveform is shown as a dashed blue line. In addition, the function parameters and physical properties of the discharge current are listed beneath the figure. The measured and calculated waveforms have a correlation coefficient of roughly 0.956, which confirms the validity of the proposed generation method for a single pulse.
Regarding the current pulse trains, they can be characterized as the superposition of separated single current pulses. A schematic representation of a typical arcing current pulse train with pseudo-randomly generated parameters is shown in
Figure 12.
and
are the positive and negative amplitudes for the
ith current pulse, respectively, and
is the
ith interval time between two successive pulses. According to the above analysis, the analytical function of every single pulse can be determined according to the triplet (
A+,
tr,
tw) generated by the parameter distribution functions. Assuming
N to be the total number of single pulses in a pulse train, the
N single pulses can be represented by the notation
,
. Then, we can produce
N groups of random
tin based on the Extreme Value distribution stated in Equation (15) and apply the following formula to splice the pulse train sequence:
where
denotes the current value between the end of
ith pulse (denoted as
) and the start point of the (i + 1)th pulse (denoted as
).
has following expression:
and
is the random pulse interval time
.
As an example, the measured and fitted waveforms of the discharge pulse train recorded for 10 ms are presented in
Figure 13a,b, respectively, where the applied voltage is 35 kV and the gap spacing between electrodes is 5 mm. It is seen that both the amplitude of each pulse in the test waveform and the simulated sequence, as well as the interval between two consecutive pulses, are random and that their randomness is similar. By statistical calculation,
ms and
ms. Then, we calculated the parameter value of the Extreme Value distribution from Equation (16), and we have
= 0.214 and
= 0.050. The interval distance of the simulated pulse train in
Figure 13b is produced at random according to Equation (15). With this determined PDF, the generated
tin has a mean value of 0.185 and a standard deviation of 0.064, consistent with statistical calculations. The pulse train simulated by this method is very similar to the measured one. The stochastic model of the discharge waveform is effective based on the description of the statistical distribution of the waveform.
The flow diagram of the stochastic model of pulsed discharge current in the time domain is summarized in
Figure 14, including the extraction for the statistical distribution of the waveform parameters, the construction of connection between the mathematical parameters (
α,
β,
tp,
te) and physical parameters (
A+,
A−,
tr,
tw,
tin,
tf), and the establishment of the time-domain waveform of the transient current for both single pulse and pulse train. The detailed description of the calculation process has been given in previous sections.
According to the method depicted in the flowchart, the excitation current waveforms of EMD with various intensities can be obtained in the case of a known parameter distribution function by altering the quantile of the selected probability distribution.
We first chose the 50%, 80% (or 20%), and 95% (or 5%) quantiles to represent the moderate, severe, and critical EMD scenarios. Each waveform characteristic conforms to a specific distribution rule, although the distribution parameters still need to be specified. In fact, the parameters of each distribution function can be determined by the experimental conditions according to the correlation shown in
Figure 7,
Table 5, and Equations (14), (16), (18) and (19). Then,
A+,
tr,
tw, and
tin with statistically typical characteristics can be obtained from the identified distribution function and the selected quantiles for different severity levels. Using the relationship between the analytic parameters (
α and
β) and the waveform parameters in Equations (24)–(27), the MDEF model (in the form of Equation (21)) representing the single pulse waveform can be finally derived from the triplet (
A+,
tr,
tw).
The approach can generate the arc discharge current waveform for a specified EMD severity and arc-generating condition.
Figure 15 illustrates the calculated single-pulse current waveforms for the three situations with an applied voltage of 35 kV and an electrode separation spacing of 5 mm.
Comparing the three generated waveforms, the positive peak amplitudes are 14.580, 19.218, and 26.252 A, respectively, while the rise times are 18.731, 17.522, and 15.419 ns, which proves a larger amplitude and a faster rising speed dI/dt in the more serious situations. In addition, the calculated quantiles of the pulse interval times representing the three situations are 0.195, 0.139, and 0.065 ms. In a more serious EMD scenario, not only does a single current pulse exhibit a higher and steeper front-rising edge, but the occurrence frequency of the pulsed current transients increases significantly.
The method first establishes the connection between the arc generation conditions and the probability distribution of physical waveform characteristics. Then, it uses the relationship between these waveform parameters and the function parameters to determine the analytical expression that can estimate the current waveform. The proposed method can provide electromagnetic excitation current waveforms under different EMD severities and arcing conditions with high accuracy across the entire variation range of the experimental parameters. It can even generate the estimated waveform of arcing current beyond the experimental parameters’ variation range if the empirical fitting results conform to the physical law, which can be used as prediction of the current waveforms and their key parameters.
The application of this method can further elucidate the generation mechanism of the electromagnetic emission from PC arcing and supplement the fundamental data of EMD created by pantograph–catenary arcing. The generated pulse waveform can be utilized in assessing the immunity of the device under test to the EMD generated by pantograph–catenary arcing. As the electromagnetic excitation source, the generated waveform can help reproduce the electromagnetic environment when a pantograph–catenary arc occurs.