Materno-Fetal and Neonatal Complications of Diabetes in Pregnancy: A Retrospective Study †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
- 207 patients (group cases): 183 had diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus and 24 pregestational (of which n = 17 diagnosed with diabetes mellitus type 1 and n = 7 with diagnosis of diabetes mellitus type 2);
- 207 patients (group control) with a negative pathologic history of GDM, DM1 and DM2 represented the population of controls (the control group was randomly selected to avoid selection bias).
2.1. Collected Data
2.2. Pregnancy Outcomes
- Gestational age at childbirth (GA)
- Number of hospitalization days
- Mode of delivery (spontaneous vaginal delivery or cesarean section)
2.3. In Case of Vaginal Delivery
- Spontaneous labor or induced labor
- Method of induction of labor for delivery (oxytocin or prostaglandins)
- Entities of blood loss, and therefore any postpartum hemorrhages (defined as all cases with loss greater than 500 mL of blood)
- External genital conditions after delivery: genital lacerations or episiotomy.
2.4. In Case of Cesarean Section (CS)
- Scheduled or emergency cesarean section
- Indications for surgery
- Entities of blood loss, and therefore any postpartum hemorrhages (defined as all cases with loss greater than 1000 mL of blood).
2.5. Diseases of Pregnancy and Fetal Pathologies
- Threatened abortion
- Threatened preterm birth
- Gestational hypertension
- Preeclampsia and hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets (HELLP) syndrome
- Placental abruption
- Pathology of amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios and polydramnios)
- Premature rupture of membranes (PROM)
- Macrosomia
- Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) fetus
- Morphologic abnormalities diagnosed on ultrasound
2.6. Neonatal Outcomes
- Weight at birth compared to those expected for the gestational age (in percentiles) and then classification within one of the classes of appropriate for gestational age (AGA), small for gestational age (SGA), or or large for gestational age (LGA). For this study we used the definition of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (RCOG) [15] which informs UK clinical practice, based on sonographic estimated fetal weight (EFW) measurement < 10th percentile to describe a fetus that has not reached its target weight. Patients were divided in three groups for comparison; fetuses with EFW below the 10th percentile for gestational age (SGA), fetuses with EFW > 10th percentile for gestation (AGA) and fetuses > 90th percentile for gestation (LGA) according to the Alexander growth standard [16].
- Apgar at the first minute
- Number of hospitalization days and at which intensity of care (nursery, neonatology or NICU)
- Recognition of respiratory diseases at birth such as respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), transient tachycardia of the newborn (TTN) or apnea crisis and if there was any intubation
- Blood glucose at the third hour
- Hypoglycemia status and glucose supplementation
- Neonatal jaundice, treated or not with phototherapy
- Morphologic abnormalities found at birth
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Pregnancy Disorders
3.2. Fetal Disorders
3.3. Pregnancy Outcomes
3.4. Comparison between Pathologies in Pregnancy and Diabetes Therapy
3.5. Relationship between Pregnancy Complications and a BMI > 25 in Cases and Controls
3.6. Relationship between Materno-Fetal Outcomes and Forms of Diabetes
3.7. Neonatal Outcomes
- 3 cases of patent foramen ovale with hemodynamically significant shunt;
- 3 cases of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PST);
- 1 case of atrial septal defect (ASD) type “ostium secundum”, associated with patency of the ductus arteriosus;
- 1 case of ventricular septal defect (VSD) with left–right shunt;
- 1 case of aortic coarctation;
- 1 case of right bundle branch block, associated with severe laryngomalacia.
- 4 cases of congenital clubfoot or talipes equinovarus;
- 3 cases of clinodactyly in the 5th right toe;
- 1 case of mandibular hypoplasia with lingual retropulsion, associated with the presence of hammer toes.
- 5 cases of hydrocele;
- 5 cases of bilateral pyelectasis;
- 1 case of pelvic kidney;
- 1 case of hypospadias;
- 1 case with hypertrophy of labia minora;
- 1 case with left ovarian mass (21 mm x 18 mm).
- 1 case of hypoplasia of the cerebellar vermis with concomitant enlargement of the cavity of the 4th ventricle and increased volume of the cisterna magna.
- 1 case with Robertsonian translocation between chromosomes 13–14 of maternal origin.
- 1 case of ventricular septal defect (VSD), with the presence of a shunt of medium size;
- 1 case of mid-apical VSD with the presence of a mild shunt;
- 1 case of patency of the ductus arteriosus.
- 1 cases of congenital clubfoot or talipes equinovarus;
- 1 case of mandibular hypoplasia;
- 1 case of clinodactyly in the 5th toe of the left foot;
- 1 case of mandibular hypoplasia associated with clinodactyly.
- 2 cases of hypospadias;
- 1 case of hydrocele;
- 1 case of renal pyelectasis left;
- 1 case of trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome);
- 1 case of a newborn with facial asymmetry, left ear dysmorphism, absence of the last pair of ribs, patent foramen ovale and retinal hemorrhages, which posed the suspicion of Goldenhar syndrome.
4. Discussion
Limitations of the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Anthropometric Characteristics | Control Group (n = 207) | Case Group (n = 207) | p-Value |
Median (IQR) pregestational weight, kg | 56 (50–64) | 65 (58–80) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) pregestational BMI, kg/m2 | 22.0 (19.8–24.0) | 25.6 (22.5–30.1) | <0.0001 |
Normal weight, n (%) | 175 (84.5) | 92 (44.4) | <0.0001 |
Overweight, n (%) | 24 (11.6) | 60 (29.0) | <0.0001 |
Obese, n (%) | 8 (3.9) | 53 (25.6) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) weight increase, kg | 12 (10–15) | 10 (6–13) | <0.0001 |
Excessive weight increase (>12 kg), n (%) | 84 (40.6) | 53 (25.6) | 0.001 |
Median (IQR) weight at delivery, kg | 70 (63–76) | 78 (68–89) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) BMI at delivery, kg/m2 | 26.7 (24.7–28.7) | 29.4 (26.6–33.1) | <0.0001 |
Anthropometric Characteristics | Control Group (n = 207) | Women with GDM (n = 182) | p-Value |
Median (IQR) pregestational weight, kg | 56 (50–64) | 65 (58–79) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) pregestational BMI, kg/m2 | 22.0 (19.8–24.0) | 25.5 (22.6–30.1) | <0.0001 |
Normal weight, n (%) | 175 (84.5) | 83 (45.6) | <0.0001 |
Overweight, n (%) | 24 (11.6) | 53 (29.1) | <0.0001 |
Obese, n (%) | 8 (3.9) | 46 (25.3) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) weight increase, kg | 12 (10–15) | 10 (6–12) | <0.0001 |
Excessive weight increase (>12 kg), n (%) | 84 (40.6) | 46 (25.3) | 0.001 |
Median (IQR) weight at delivery, kg | 70 (63–76) | 77 (68–88) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) BMI at delivery, kg/m2 | 26.7 (24.7–28.7) | 29.5 (26.8–32.9) | <0.0001 |
Anthropometric Characteristics | Control Group (n = 207) | Women with DM1/2 (n = 24) | p-Value |
Median (IQR) pregestational weight, kg | 56 (50–64) | 67.5 (57.5–81.0) | 0.0004 |
Median (IQR) pregestational BMI, kg/m2 | 22.0 (19.8–24.0) | 25.7 (21.2–30.1) | 0.0005 |
Normal weight, n (%) | 175 (84.5) | 9 (37.5) | <0.0001 |
Overweight, n (%) | 24 (11.6) | 7 (29.2) | 0.02 |
Obese, n (%) | 8 (3.9) | 6 (25.0) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) weight increase, kg | 12 (10–15) | 9.5 (6–13) | 0.008 |
Excessive weight increase (>12 kg), n (%) | 84 (40.6) | 7 (29.2) | 0.28 |
Median (IQR) weight at delivery, kg | 70 (63–76) | 79.5 (65.0–88.5) | 0.006 |
Median (IQR) BMI at delivery, kg/m2 | 26.7 (24.7–28.7) | 29.1 (25.7–33.6) | 0.01 |
Pathologies in Pregnancy | OR (95% CI) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Threatened abortion | DM1 | – | – |
DM2 | 79.6 (6.2–1028.9) | 0.001 | |
GDM | 0.1 (0.0–0.7) | 0.03 | |
Threatened preterm birth | DM1 | 4.1 (1.4–11.5) | 0.009 |
DM2 | 0.8 (0.1–7.0) | 0.85 | |
GDM | 0.4 (0.2–0.9) | 0.04 | |
Gestational hypertension | DM1 | 4.9 (0.9–27.6) | 0.07 |
DM2 | 5.4 (0.6–52.0) | 0.15 | |
GDM | 0.2 (0.0–0.8) | 0.02 | |
Preeclampsia | DM1 | 10.9 (3.0–39.5) | <0.0001 |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | 0.2 (0.1–0.6) | 0.004 | |
HELLP syndrome | DM1 | – | – |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | – | – | |
Placental abruption | DM1 | – | – |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | – | – | |
Amniotic fluid pathology | DM1 | 3.9 (1.0–15.6) | 0.06 |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | 0.4 (0.1–1.7) | 0.22 | |
Oligohydramnios | DM1 | 2.9 (0.3–27.6) | 0.35 |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | 0.5 (0.1–5.0) | 0.59 | |
Polyhydramnios | DM1 | 4.1 (0.8–22.0) | 0.10 |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | 0.4 (0.1–2.1) | 0.27 | |
Premature rupture of amniochorionic membranes—preterm | DM1 | – | – |
DM2 | 6.5 (0.7–64.6) | 0.11 | |
GDM | 0.7 (0.1–6.1) | 0.73 | |
Premature rupture of amniochorionic membranes—to term | DM1 | – | – |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | – | – | |
Fetal pathologies | |||
Fetal growth disorders | DM1 | 2.2 (0.6–8.4) | 0.26 |
DM2 | 1.6 (0.2–13.9) | 0.68 | |
GDM | 0.5 (0.2–1.7) | 0.26 | |
Macrosomia | DM1 | 3.0 (0.6–15.6) | 0.18 |
DM2 | 3.5 (0.4–32.6) | 0.27 | |
GDM | 0.3 (0.1–1.2) | 0.09 | |
IUGR | DM1 | 1.3 (0.2–10.6) | 0.83 |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | 1.3 (0.2–10.3) | 0.84 | |
Morphologic anomalies | DM1 | 2.7 (0.5–13.6) | 0.23 |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | 0.6 (0.1–2.9) | 0.53 | |
Delivery | |||
Vaginal delivery | DM1 | 0.1 (0.0–0.7) | 0.02 |
DM2 | 0.3 (0.0–2.1) | 0.20 | |
GDM | 8.8 (2.0–38.5) | 0.004 | |
Cesarean section | DM1 | 11.6 (1.5–89.6) | 0.02 |
DM2 | 4.0 (0.5–33.9) | 0.20 | |
GDM | 0.1 (0.0–0.5) | 0.004 | |
Preterm delivery | DM1 | 10.3 (3.4–31.0) | <0.0001 |
DM2 | 4.7 (1.0–21.9) | 0.05 | |
GDM | 0.1 (0.1–0.3) | <0.0001 | |
Hospitalization time ≥ 4 days | DM1 | – | – |
DM2 | – | – | |
GDM | – | – |
Control Group (n = 207) | Case Group (n = 207) | p-Value | |
Fetus large for gestational age (LGA) n (%) | 18/207 (8.7) | 46/207 (22.3) | <0.0001 |
Respiratory disorders n (%) | 18/207 (8.7) | 37/207 (17.9) | 0.004 |
RDS (respiratory distress syndrome) n (%) | 11/207 (5.3) | 26/207 (12.6) | ns |
TTN (Neonatal transient tachypnea) n (%) | 3/207 (1.4) | 9/207 (4.3) | ns |
Neonatal intubation n (%) | 12/207 (5.8) | 31/207 (15) | ns |
Median (IQR) glycemia at 3° hours, mg/dL | 68 (61–74) | 64 (54–73) | 0.008 |
Median (IQR) lower glycemia, mg/dL | 64 (54–71) | 51 (39–62) | <0.0001 |
Neonatal hypoglycemia n (%) | 11/207 (5.3) | 51/207 (24.6) | 0.0001 |
Neonatal jaundice n (%) | 49/207 (23.7) | 107/207 (51.7) | <0.0001 |
Phototherapy n (%) | 24/207 (11.6) | 68/207 (32.8) | <0.0001 |
Morphologic anomalies n (%) | 20/207 (9.6) | 40/207 (19.3) | 0.005 |
Control Group (n = 207) | Women with GDM (n = 182) | ||
Fetus large for gestational age (LGA) n (%) | 18/207 (8.7) | 34/182 (18.8) | <0.0001 |
Respiratory disorders n (%) | 18/207 (8.6) | 28/182 (15.4) | 0.03 |
RDS (respiratory distress syndrome) n (%) | 11/207 (5.3) | 19/182 (10.4) | ns |
TTN (Neonatal transient tachypnea) n (%) | 3/207 (1.4) | 7/182 (3.9) | ns |
Neonatal intubation n (%) | 12/207 (5.8) | 22/182 (12.1) | 0.03 |
Median (IQR) glycemia at 3° hours, mg/dL | 68 (61–74) | 65 (57–74) | ns |
Median (IQR) lower glycemia, mg/dL | 64 (54–71) | 53 (42–63) | <0.0001 |
Neonatal hypoglycemia n (%) | 11/207 (5.3) | 37/182 (20.3) | 0.0001 |
Morphologic anomalies n (%) | 20/207 (9.6) | 34/182 (18.8) | 0.01 |
Control Group (n = 207) | Women with DM1/2 (n = 24) | ||
Fetus large for gestational age (LGA) n (%) | 18/207 (8.7) | 12/24 (50) | <0.0001 |
Respiratory disorders n (%) | 18/207 (8.6) | 8/24 (33.3) | <0.0001 |
RDS (respiratory distress syndrome) n (%) | 11/207 (5.3) | 7/24 (29.2%) | 0.0001 |
TTN (neonatal transient tachypnea) n (%) | 3/207 (1.4) | 2/24 (8.3) | ns |
Neonatal intubation n (%) | 12/207 (5.8) | 8/24 (33.3) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) glycemia at 3° hours, mg/dL | 68 (61–74) | 47.5 (31.0–66.5) | <0.0001 |
Median (IQR) lower glycemia, mg/dL | 64 (54–71) | 38.5 (29.5–51.5) | <0.0001 |
Neonatal hypoglycemia n (%) | 11/207 (5.3) | 14/24 (58.3) | 0.0001 |
Morphologic anomalies n (%) | 20/207 (9.6) | 6/24 (25) | 0.02 |
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Capobianco, G.; Gulotta, A.; Tupponi, G.; Dessole, F.; Pola, M.; Virdis, G.; Petrillo, M.; Mais, V.; Olzai, G.; Antonucci, R.; et al. Materno-Fetal and Neonatal Complications of Diabetes in Pregnancy: A Retrospective Study. J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 2707. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9092707
Capobianco G, Gulotta A, Tupponi G, Dessole F, Pola M, Virdis G, Petrillo M, Mais V, Olzai G, Antonucci R, et al. Materno-Fetal and Neonatal Complications of Diabetes in Pregnancy: A Retrospective Study. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020; 9(9):2707. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9092707
Chicago/Turabian StyleCapobianco, Giampiero, Alessandra Gulotta, Giulio Tupponi, Francesco Dessole, Maddalena Pola, Giuseppe Virdis, Marco Petrillo, Valerio Mais, Giorgio Olzai, Roberto Antonucci, and et al. 2020. "Materno-Fetal and Neonatal Complications of Diabetes in Pregnancy: A Retrospective Study" Journal of Clinical Medicine 9, no. 9: 2707. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9092707