The Role of Renewable Energy Sources and Industry 4.0 Focus for Africa: A Review

Abstract

The fourth industrial revolution presents an upspring opportunity for the African continent to adopt technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, internet-enabled industrial platforms, 3D printing, robotics, nanotechnology, and blockchains. This is more so because the past three industrial revolutions saw the African continent being left out of its opportunities despite its affluent population and natural resources. Africa stands to benefit from industrial development, digitalization, and greater integration, which would result in more excellent opportunities for the growing youthful populations. However, for the digital transformation strategy and other key industry 4.0 opportunities to be successful, reliable infrastructure, affordable and stable electricity, and greater awareness are critical and imperative. This review examines the possible energy options that the continent of Africa can explore and implement for the successful deployment of Industry 4.0. The impact, difficulties, and opportunities of the fourth industrial revolution technologies on African development are discussed. Also discussed are various forms of renewable energy options based on Africa’s geographic location. This review will assist researchers and policymakers in implementing Industry 4.0 in Africa.

1. Introduction

The industrial revolution is the deployment of new techniques and processes for manufacturing and related activities, and it ushers in development, transformation, and inequalities among countries [1]. It brings about radical and abrupt changes that have long-lasting effects at all societal levels. It is a form of comprehensive innovation that phases out old technologies and sets in new ones in major economic sectors for modernization and long-term development. The first industrial revolution introduced the steam engine and coal [2]. This was followed by the second industrial revolution, characterized by the age of science and electricity [3,4]. The third industrial revolution improved from the second in the early ‘90s and was marked by the dawn of the internet, microelectronics, renewable materials, cleaner technology, and recycling [1]. The precursor of industry 4.0 is the mass production era, renewable energy, and the Internet of Things [5]. This change saw a wide margin between developed and developing countries [6]. Despite having a population and abundant natural resources, Africa lagged due to the absence of stable electricity and energy needed for powering batch systems and other mass-production technology. The last decade has introduced the current industrial revolution called industry 4.0. Some countries, like China, have deployed and tapped into various features of this technology. Although a country like South Africa seems to be the champion deployment of technologies for industry 4.0, in Africa, other countries on the continent of Africa continue to lag [7].

The energy was a necessity in the success of the third industrial revolution and seemed to be the same for the success of the current fourth industrial revolution [8]. Although, with the challenge of global warming, there is a shift towards clean and sustainable energy for the fourth industrial revolution. Notwithstanding, affordability, and ease of energy usage and development are other parameters in selecting an appropriate energy source in Africa [9]. Africa can tap the sun’s energy, wind, ocean current, and human movement. The continent has sunshine for the entire year [10,11]. South Africa alone has a 220 W/m² 24 h global solar radiation average compared to 100 W/m² and 150 W/m² for Europe and America, respectively [12]. Africa is estimated to have about 1300 GW of wind energy potential, with South Africa estimated to reach 3 GW before 2023 [13].

Similarly, with an average population of about 1.34 billion, the continent of Africa can benefit from energy obtained from human movement [14]. The continent is surrounded by a body of water that can generate electricity from tidal currents [15], in the south by the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean; in the east by the Red Sea; the west by the Atlantic Ocean; in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. This is in addition to other renewable energy sources that the continent can benefit from to help actualize the fourth industrial revolution. As far as could be ascertained, this needs to be adequately explored and exploited in Africa [16]. This paper is structured so that the fourth industrial revolution is discussed and reviewed, critical features highlighted, and opportunities of the technology examined. This is followed by checking some selected affordable, clean, sustainable renewable energy sources with minimal maintenance and research. These renewable energies are discussed with Africa’s challenges, opportunities, implementation, and penetration level. The review presents the position of the African Union and some African countries in actualizing the 4IR in the continent.

The paper is organized in a way that the introduction is followed by a discussion on Industry 4.0 in Africa. After that, a detailed discussion on renewable energy is done in Section 3, followed by a section that discusses challenges facing industry 4.0 actualization in Africa and proposed remedies. The paper concluded with a recommendation (a way forward) and a conclusion.

2. Industry 4.0 in Africa

The next phase of the industrial revolution is known as industry 4.0 or the fourth industrial revolution. It is a term that was introduced in 2011 to describe the merging of information, communication, and related technology into production and industry [17]. It is the latest of its kind, shown in

Table 1. The Industrial Revolution’s critical features were adapted from Schuh et al. [17].

Industrial Revolution	Periods	Main Features
First (Machine age)	1780–1880	Mechanical production, energy transformation, and the start of globalization
Second (Electricity age)	1880–1950	Mass production, electrical, energy transformation, conversion to clean energy, electrification
Third (Electronic age)	1950–2000	The advent of the Internet, automation, conversion of analog to digital (both mechanical and electronic devices), introduction of information technology
Fourth (Age of the Internet)	2000–2050	Introduction of social technology, new techno materials and cyber-physical systems, Internet of Things, additive manufacturing, industrial Internet, driverless cars

.

There have been four different revolutions. The first industrial revolution (1IR) was characterized by decreased dependence on beasts of burden, giving way to the steam engine and its application in industrial and residential applications. This resulted in railway construction, steel, and the movement of raw materials and finished goods, which improved the quality of life of affected persons and led to urbanization. The second industrial revolution (2IR) lasted from the 1880s to the 1950s. It was characterized by electricity’s discovery, leading to increased production rates and improved communication and other facets of life. The discovery of the personal computer in the early 1950s and the Internet around the 2000s paved the way for the third industrial revolution (3IR) from the 1950s to 2000. The introduction of computing in the industry allowed for significant progress in developing new technologies. This computing capacity made it possible for humans to run relatively complex sets of instructions and even facilitated humanity reaching the surface of the Moon. This development soon enhanced the quality of life of commercial firms with the introduction of personal computers by companies such as IBM and Apple in the 1980s [18]. The term industry 4.0 is used mainly in Europe, especially Germany [19]. The main focus is on industries and related sectors. It is known as the industrial Internet in most of the United States, made famous by General Electric [20]. It is also referred to as integrated industry [21], smart manufacturing [22], and innovative industry [23]. It is a technology that aims to increase productivity, reduce downtime, and speed up production activities [19,24].

Table 2. Nomenclatures of 4IR in parts of the world adapted from [19,20].

S/N	Continent/Countries	Name Used
1	Europe (Germany)	Industry 4.0
2	North America (United States of America)	Industrial Internet
3	Africa (South Africa)	4IR

summarizes some selected continents and their terms used to describe the 4IR.

In some parts of the world, the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) is sweeping across all sectors, from companies to research centers [25]. In Europe and other developed continents, 4IR has become a lullaby and is discussed at every event and meeting [26]. Countries in those continents have included it in their national key developmental initiative [27]. The USA government committed USD 2 billion to it in 2014 [28]. In contrast, Africa seems to be lagging in this instance [29]. Notably, discussion around it is gaining momentum in some countries, especially South Africa. In response to this, President Ramaphosa of South Africa included the 4IR in the national economic strategy [7]. 4IR is the age of global interconnection between technologies in everyday life, such as biological processes, physical infrastructure, and digital architecture [30]. These technologies include intelligent systems, smart machines, gene sequencing, smart energy, nanotechnology, quantum computing, and centralized digital control, such as the so-called “Internet of Things” (IoT) [31].

The key technologies of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR)—accelerating digitalization, artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, robotics, and 3D printing—have obvious and important implications for education, employment, and the future of work [32]. This is especially true for African countries. Figure 1 gives the key technologies that characterize the fourth industrial revolution. The figure provides a summary of the technologies that make up the 4IR. The key technologies are discussed here.

Artificial intelligence is the replication of human reasoning in machines. Machines replicate and act similarly to humans, especially in problem-solving, thinking, and learning [33]. An application of AI in daily living is detecting and eliminating bank card fraud by identifying spending patterns. The technology can decode voices and handwriting, among other traits that follow spending patterns. It is already applied in medicine, construction, and big data [34,35,36,37]. The Internet of Things (IoT) links physical items using sensors and software to transmit data across the Internet, mainly via Wi-Fi [38]. Although not all IoT devices require the Internet to function, they must be interfaced with other devices. It is used in smart homes, connected appliances, biometric scanners, and innovative factory equipment [39,40]. The purpose is for the device to feed data without manual human intervention. Examples include Google Home, Amazon Alexa, and baby monitors.

Furthermore, 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, converts computer-aided objects into reality, especially 3-dimensional objects [41]. The materials are built layer by layer until the final thing is formed. The object to be printed is first constructed or modeled using computer-aided tools. Recently, several entities have been fabricated using 3D printers. It finds application in medicine for printing human organs, building, and other sectors [42].

Cloud computing provides computer resources such as data storage, software, servers, and computing resources on demand and made available over the Internet [43,44]. However, quantum computing uses the principle of quantum theory to perform calculations [45]. It differs from conventional computers that use 1 s or 0 s, but quantum computing uses the object state before measurement [46]. This allows quantum computing to perform exponentially compared to conventional computing. Robotics are machines built by combining technology, mathematics, engineering, and science [47]. This machine performs tasks hitherto tricky and sometimes dangerous for humans. Robots have been deployed for several applications, including surgery and manufacturing [48,49,50,51,52,53].

Fourth Industrial Revolution in Africa

The fourth industrial revolution is gaining momentum across different parts of the world. However, the same cannot be said concerning Africa. Despite the claim that 4IR has a high penetration rate globally, some countries still lack some of the main features of the 2IR and 3IR. About 66.67% of the world population is behind the 2IR, as they lack access to electricity [54]. Similarly, 50% of the world population needs to catch up on the 3IR due to a lack of access to the Internet [55]. Africa and some parts of India and Asia account for the bulk of these figures [56], although some momentum is being gathered in parts of South Africa and Kenya. In these two countries, the emphasis of the 4IR is focused on education, entrepreneurship, the national economy, and manufacturing. Fwaya and Kesa [57] examined the implication of the 4IR on hotel businesses in South Africa and Kenya. The study argued that hotels in the two countries benefit from 4IR in revenue and exposure via social media usage. However, the need for regulation of the 4IR features and unpredictable aspects of the 4IR poses a real challenge to the sector. Waghid and Waghid [58] researched advancing cosmopolitan education in Africa regarding 4IR. The study believed that the best route to actualize the 4IR is by implementing and tapping into technologies of previous IRs, especially electricity and the Internet.

This study suggests that new skill sets such as problem-solving, social, processing, and cognitive skills should be included in Africa’s school curriculum. This study opined that teaching and learning should be done to allow the global acquisition of skills and competencies by African schools while developing these skillsets indigenously. Kayembe and Nel [31] used unobtrusive methods to examine the challenges and windows of opportunities available to education in South Africa with 4IR. The study identified a lack of adequate infrastructure, skill shortage, and funding as significant factors mitigating the success of 4IR. However, the 4IR offers an opportunity for global participation in collaborative partnerships and the digital economy. Naudé [59] did comprehensive work on the link between entrepreneurship, education, and 4IR. The paper suggested that consented efforts must be given to entrepreneurship and education for Africa to benefit from the 4IR.

However, in line with Kayembe and Nel’s [31] assertions, implementing 4IR with existing infrastructure in African countries needs to be tempered and observed. This is especially true in the case of industrial energy generation and provision levels. Specifically, the transmission and distribution infrastructure is sparsely distributed outside countries like Nigeria, Ghana, and sub-Saharan Africa, often focusing entirely on capital cities. Rural areas often depend more on decentralized, or local, generation and electricity provided by fossil fuel. These include diesel for electricity and coal or wood for domestic heating and cooking.

Energy consumption is also limited by the availability of suitably sized off-takers, with most being relatively rudimentary, such as open-pit mining, small-scale materials processing, and logging. Therefore, despite a substantial influx of funds from IFCs (international finance corporations) and local financial institutions, the introduction of energy, more specifically renewable energy, in the African context needs to be carefully considered, as the production of power cannot be viewed on a stand-alone basis. However, the next section will aim to clarify what renewable energy is, how it functions in terms of generation, how it affects a transmission/distribution network in practice, and what is required. The key features of the 4IR include the shift in population, shift in mass production, and rise of the sophisticated transportation system. Population shift will occur at the height of the 4IR. Furthermore, mass production will shift by deploying advanced technologies such as robotics and 3D printing. A whole building will be completed within a short time using these technologies [60]. There will also be a shift in transportation and power. A high-speed transportation system will be deployed, and goods and humans will move faster and in large quantities. Electric cars will replace fossil-fuel-based vehicles [61].

3. Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is a cumulative term used to describe the creation of electron flow in a system without using substances/resources that are finite. The various types of renewable energy sources [62] are shown in Figure 2. Commonly non-renewable energy generation is often termed fossil fuel generation [63]. It encompasses technologies such as coal-fired power stations, gas turbine power stations, integrated gasification combined cycle, and other syngas power stations that operate using finite resources, such as solid fuel in the form of coal, derivatives of crude oil (petroleum products), or natural gas.

Non-renewable technologies have been primary drivers in the 2IR and 3IR [64]. Environmentalists, energy specialists, and laypersons have—with good reason given the finite nature of the current fuel source and the impact on the environment caused by burning same—looked at implementing alternative sources of energy to lower dependence on non-renewable energy, as well as to be more environmentally friendly in existing under our current quality of life expectations. The following sections will describe a few standard renewable energy technologies currently implemented worldwide, noting their specific benefits and shortcomings in our daily lives. Figure 3 gives renewable energy installed capacity in some African countries with selected data from IRENA [65] and Gebrehiwot and Van den Bossche [66].

3.1. Solar Energy

Solar energy describes energy derived from the sun, either in heating or by photons that excite electrons in a photoelectric material to produce a current [67]. The data released by International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) shows that Egypt had the highest growth, with 581 MW of solar energy in Africa. South Africa contributed 373 MW, making it second on the continent. South Africa has a capacity of 2.5 GW, making it the highest market operational solar system. Kenya was third in 2018, with an estimated 55 MW added to the installed solar capacity. Namibia added 33 MW in 2018, taking installed solar power to 79 MW. The fifth highest was Ghana, adding 25 MW to increase installed capacity to 64 MW [68]. This is summarized in Figure 4. The breakdown of South Africa’s installed solar capacity shows that photovoltaic accounts for 2321 MW and concentrated solar power account for 600 MW [69].

Currently, three technologies use solar energy: solar photovoltaic implementations, concentrated solar photovoltaic implementations, concentrated solar power—central tower/heliostat field, and parabolic trough, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Solar photovoltaic (Solar PV) power plants use the photoelectric effect on a large scale. The electrons energized by the electromagnetic waves do not escape the atoms in the material (most commonly silica). The valence electrons move freely to produce a direct current (DC) at a specific voltage. This electric power—produced by substantial solar cells arranged in panels and strings—is converted to MV (medium voltage: 6.6 kV to 33 kV) alternating current (AC). The conversion to AC from DC aims to minimize heat losses from high electrical currents in cables (P_loss = I²R).

The MV AC is then distributed to a facility substation. It is transformed once more to obtain the electrical grid connection operating voltage (usually 132 kV, 220 kV, 330 kV, or 400 kV) before being injected into the grid. Solar PV panels are sold based on their rated peak power output (output produced under STP conditions utilizing perpendicular irradiance at 1 kW/m², considered “full sun”). Therefore, one can feel a perpendicular placement concerning solar PV panels’ incident sunlight optimal. However, given the Earth’s rotational behavior on its axis and tilt to the sun during the year, the solar PV panels’ placement and performance are often optimized using software such as PVSyst. Solar PV power plants are also susceptible to some other issues. Soiling losses can reach up to 3%, while temperature losses can exceed 7%. The meteorological irradiance losses are also quite substantial, with deployed solar PV power plants only capturing 18 and 25% of the available sunlight to convert into energy. Taking all losses and irradiance losses into consideration, on any given day, you may only produce peak power for a combined time of 4–6 h, depending on placement. The following Figure 6 demonstrates an example of the sun’s path throughout a given year in South Africa, read from left to right in terms of the time of day:

According to the information in Figure 6, there is little to no sunshine in the morning, while peak sun occurs around mid-day. This leads to irradiance losses in solar fields, meaning there are periods when the power output is significantly lower than the rated capacity.

To maintain outputs closer to the summer solstice, three solutions have been presented:

• Fixed frame installation facing 23° north
• Single axis tracking from east to west daily
• Dual-axis tracking, which tracks east to west and north to south, based on data provided previously

Each of these solutions has its drawbacks, and decisions regarding which solution will be used usually come down to cost and ROI (return on investment)

Another issue facing solar PV installations is that of overcast weather. The plant’s output is significantly decreased if the plant experiences cloud coverage (even if only partial). Concentrated solar PV plants provide more energy output by using magnification to intensify the irradiance of a single solar PV cell. This technology, primarily due to the cost of exaggeration and the cost of increased spatial requirements, has fallen out of favor worldwide. Concentrated solar power, while being relatively costly compared to solar PV, is the technology most capable of consistently providing power and avoiding the pickup and drop-off in energy experienced by solar PV. This is entirely due to the operating mechanism behind concentrated solar power. Concentrated solar power installations are primarily like the standard layout of a coal-fired power station. The exception is that the coal-fired boiler is replaced with a heat exchanger that operates on heat energy stored in molten salt. The heat in the molten salt comes from a secondary heat exchanger phase, wherein a heat transfer fluid (usually non-flammable oil) is heated directly by the sun using either a central tower collector or tubes in parabolic trough mirrors.

In the case of the central tower, the facility is surrounded by concave mirrors connected to motors, allowing motion in three dimensions to track the sun’s position, called a heliostat field. This heliostat field uses incident sunlight reflection to a collector at the top of the central tower. Heat transfer occurs in the fluid, pumped to the heat exchanger with the molten salt solution. The molten salt solution can then be stored and used to operate the power station at any given time and rate, with plants generally built with a specific amount of working time in mind, which affects the salt storage capacity and the heliostat field size. Parabolic trough installations work similarly, except that, instead of having a central collector tower, the heat transfer fluid is pumped through piping systems at the focal point of the parabolic trough mirror. The critical drawback of concentrated solar power is the plant’s overall energy density. A significant field of mirrors, often on hectare footprint orders, must produce between 100 MW and 300 MW, which can be achieved and exceeded by non-renewable energy power plants across a much smaller footprint. Another drawback is that concentrated solar power installations must be in hot places with minimal rainfall to ensure the Thermal Energy Storage (TES) remains at adequate levels. Without consideration of other technologies for energy storage, concentrated solar power is the most capable of solar technologies to provide something close to baseload energy or the energy currently supplied by non-renewable technology.

The continent of Africa has the potential to harness and benefit greatly from solar energy. The energy is clean, available to all, and capable of generating more than needed. However, there are a few impediments to the full implementation of the technology [70]. The initial cost of solar energy is not affordable to the average African populace. This is further compounded by the cost associated with importing solar equipment, as there is a limited manufacturing outlet in Africa. Furthermore, the issue of reliability related to weather fluctuation poses another impediment to solar technology. A global trade war threatens the successful implementation of technology in Africa.

3.2. Wind Energy

Wind energy uses three (usually) blades attached to a central hub, which is connected to an AC electrical generator (usually at 11 kV), which then catches passing wind, which forces the edges to rotate the hub and generate electricity. In South Africa, hub heights are generally 90–100 m above the ground, with blades approximately 50 m in length, which gives a swept diameter of roughly 80 m.

Depending on the manufacturer, wind turbine sizes range between 1 MW to 3 MW. They are very effective in coastal regions that experience relatively sustainable wind and less than the average thunderstorms to preserve the blades. The blades are made of laminated polycarbonates and are delivered to the site entirely constructed.

An inherent issue with wind energy comes into play due to the wind required to spin the turbine. The airflow must be as close to laminar as possible to create the required pressure gradient. The placement of turbines needs to be carefully considered over a large area to derive the maximum benefit. Another issue in the same vein is the erratic nature of atmospheric wind. Turbines can only generate if there is wind, and analysis of generation patterns of wind farms in South Africa has demonstrated this quite effectively. Measures are therefore required to maintain output despite the intermittence of wind availability. One advantage is that wind energy is available 24 h per day, unlike solar energy, which is restricted to daytime operation. However, the sporadic nature of wind energy’s availability means an energy storage mechanism is required for a given facility to provide continuous power.

3.3. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is generated using heat in the Earth’s crust or near available heat sources, such as hot water geysers or lava pools. In this instance, the standard coal-fired technology setup is used again, with the boiler replaced with a heat exchanger to absorb the natural heat available in the facility. While these heat sources are generally consistent, they are sparsely located, with only one geothermal power station located on the African continent. Therefore, while it can provide continuous energy, the locality is a significant issue and is often too costly to develop.

3.4. Biomass Generation

Biomass generation or energy is energy produced using organic wastes produced by other operations. An example of this would be trash generated in wheat harvesting, offcuts, treetops, and branches left over from logging operations or offshoots of deforestation. It is seen as a renewable energy source due to organic biomass, cultivated almost indefinitely. The energy is produced using the same plants as traditional coal-fired power stations, except that the feedstock is organic biomass instead of coal. The plant combusts the biomass to produce heat, which is transferred to steam to spin a steam turbine and a generator. One of the significant drawbacks of this energy is the process. Carbon from biomass is still oxidized, forming CO₂ emissions. The biomass may also be host to other organic oils or contaminants, producing similar, if not more, harmful gasses.

Secondly, organic biomass often has relatively high moisture contents, meaning the calorific value (LHV, or Lower Heating Value basis). Therefore, the energy density is comparatively low compared to other combustion-based technologies. Finally, the low energy density, plus the fact that fuel restocking is a long lead time process, significantly limits the size of a given plant. In South Africa, through the Department of Energy through the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme, the largest biomass power plant approved for construction has only 25 MW, which is a minimal addition to the 41 GW generation capacity existing in-country.

3.5. Landfill Gas Generation

Although sparse, landfill gas generation is a technology that repurposes landfills for energy production. Landfills often contain waste types that produce methane gas as a by-product of the chemical breakdown processes of specific waste products. The availability of the methane trapped in these landfills was discovered when landfill explosions started occurring due to either the ignition of the methane or the heat produced by the natural oxidation of other materials igniting the same.

Landfill gas power stations capture landfills’ methane and burn it to produce energy, like biomass energy generation. The primary side effect of using methane as a fuel source in combustion is the production of CO₂ (although CO₂ produced by methane/natural gas is approximately 30–40% less than similar-sized coal power stations). The feedstock, methane in this instance, is also an extremely harmful GHG (greenhouse gas), producing environmental side effects roughly 21–23 times that of CO₂ emissions of the same quantity. Furthermore, as the fuel in this instance is entirely dependent on the types of waste disposed of in a landfill, including the onset of a global behavioral shift toward recycling, the availability of fuel may be a significant issue at any time during the operation of these types of technology, and are generally not considered to be reliable as a result.

3.6. Hydropower Stations

Hydropower generation uses the kinetic energy in moving water to spin turbines that, in turn, spin a generator that generates electricity, as shown in Figure 7.

The working principle of a hydropower plant is shown in Figure 8.

Two methods are primarily used to achieve this: reservoir hydropower stations and pumped-storage hydropower stations. Pumped-storage hydropower stations are not suited to continuous operation and will not be considered in this instance. In run-of-river applications, the head (inlet) and tail (outlet) races are part of a flowing river. Depending on the installation’s size, the river’s flow rate, or the requirements stipulated by environmentalists, different mechanisms are used to operate plants of this nature. Notwithstanding, the most fundamental operating mechanism is having water captured by the head raceway flowing into a Francis-type turbine, with the water’s momentum impacting the turbine’s blades, inducing rotation, and being released back into the river further downstream from the power station via the tail raceway.

In this instance, the mass flow rate and the associated kinetic energy of the water passing through the turbine determine how much electrical energy can be produced, with a proportional relationship between electrical energy output and the physical energy input using the water captured by the head raceway flowing into a Francis-type turbine. Hydropower installations are typical in the African continent and other continents around the world. Notably, Africa currently has 37 GW of hydropower generation capacity installed and generates over 130 TWh annually using the same. The continuity of the flow of a river makes hydropower generation a potential candidate for baseload generation. That said, the infrastructure required to produce energy using this mechanism varies significantly depending on the installation size. For example, the REIPPPP in South Africa allowed for hydropower installations up to 5 MW in size. This is small enough for the infrastructure to remain at ground level and use only the river flow.

Conversely, Namibia has a hydropower installation located at the northern border that it shares with Angola. It produces 330 MW and accounts for under half of the country’s energy needs. However, the river’s flow characteristics are sporadic, allowing for complete generation during the summer. The river almost reaches a standstill at other times during the year. To account for this, the Namibian installation has a collection reservoir. It holds enough water to operate all turbines during the entire flow of the river and partial operation during dry periods. This leads to a penstock that allows for an approximate 170 m drop before entering the turbine, thus significantly increasing the kinetic energy of the volume of water flow through the same. The water is then released back into the river a significant distance downstream.

This highlights the primary issue with this technology. There needs to be a river with sufficient sustained flow to generate energy that depends on the infrastructure deployed. Africa may have significant lakes and rivers to tap for energy using this technology. Still, it is highly localized since the African continent itself is considered water-scarce, meaning that there is a risk that a given region may need the ability to deploy this technology. Deployment of this technology is also often met with criticism by environmentalists due to the potential impact of the technology on the river fauna and flora. Secondly, the amount of energy may only sometimes be suitably sized to meet the region’s energy demands. It may require supplementation with other technologies to produce the electrical power needed in a given area.

3.7. Tidal Generation

Tidal generation uses the ocean tides resulting from the Moon’s gravitational pull on the Earth. Although tidal energy is not widely implemented, it can generate enormous power. It is more predictable than solar and wind energy [72]. It is 80% more efficient than solar and wind energy. The requirement for tidal energy is a tide of about 7 m for proper operation and a good head of water to propel the turbine. Three types of tidal generation technology are currently in use, as represented in Figure 9 [73].

As tidal turbines and tidal fences are either in demonstration phases or not in operation, only tidal barrages will be considered for this section. Tidal barrages operate on a similar mechanism to a standard hydropower station. It uses a tidal basin to capture seawater flowing in during high tides and releases the water through a turbine to generate electricity on low tides. This concept is easily duplicated to create electricity during both high and low tides. Some installations in Eastern Europe and Asia exceed 200 MW in generation capacity per installation, with a few other facilities in the same region of smaller capacity. A quick search on the Internet indicates that no generation capacity of this type seems evident in Africa.

A disadvantage of these types of technologies is their effect on localized ocean fauna and flora, with the technology causing increased turbidity and potentially affecting passing currents [74]. Furthermore, an oceanic operating environment would be severe to any materials placed therein, with special coatings and materials required for the equipment not to experience accelerated degradation due to corrosion.

The locality would also be an issue, as access to the ocean is paramount to the operation of this technology. This means that land-locked countries may not be able to benefit from installations of this type. Even though tides are a continuous, naturally occurring phenomenon induced by a cosmic force, there is almost no limit to the energy drawn using these mechanisms, noting that each installation will have spatial constraints limiting capacity. Tidal energy can contribute about 10 GW of electricity to South Africa. This is because about 50 MW/km of energy is produced from the coastal waves of South Africa [75]. The entire coast is capable of supplying about 57,000 MW of power is harnessed.

3.8. Human Movement

Admittedly, the energy produced by this mechanism is relatively low. Maintaining energy generation for extended periods is considered physically taxing, and sustaining the energy requirements of suburban households or industries may take time and effort. There is, however, a strong case for this technology in rural applications.

A substantial portion of the African continent can be considered rural, with local communities living through small-scale agriculture and biomass for heating and cooking. Suppose this technology was deployed in areas where the average energy demand is deficient. In that case, new technologies may be introduced to aid in transforming these communities. LED lighting, cell phones, and other low-power consumption technologies could be introduced into communities using this technology. This gives access to communication and, subjectively, more importantly, knowledge, which will significantly improve the quality of life for small communities and may even encourage small-scale innovation and invention.

4. Challenges Facing Industry 4.0 Actualization in Africa and Proposed Remedies

Given that the 4IR will focus more on improvements to communication, data analysis, and manufacturing, one needs to be mindful of the fact that a large number of countries on the African content lack these three elements. As such, should 4IR be used as a grassroots mechanism to aid African countries in developing, and the same must be used to create an energy economy? At the time of authoring, IFIs are making large quantities of money available to governments in African countries to develop renewable energy generation. Still, the need for critical energy economy components is being ignored. This means the grants go unused, or a power plant is built and commissioned and then does not operate. An energy economy consists of three primary facets, each linked to the other, as shown in Figure 10:

The missing components in most assessments of need in the African continent come down to a lack of energy demand, inadequate energy supply infrastructure, or a combination of these components. There needs to be sufficient demand to warrant such expenditure to justify installing larger-scale energy generation solutions. Additionally, should both supply and demand be present, adequate supply infrastructure is necessary to satisfy the demand. In Africa, however, this is the biggest problem. Since many countries in Africa still need to adopt technologies introduced by 2IR and 3IR, there needs to be more demand on a continental scale, except South Africa, which has 41 GW of generation capacity. In contrast, other countries only require a fraction of South Africa’s generation capacity, mainly due to a lack of manufacturing and industry, either brought on by general poverty or political instability.

Therefore, before introducing large-scale renewable energy facilities, the focus needs to be placed on smaller, decentralized facilities to advance education and innovation in rural communities. Demand can be created due to the increasing needs of the people in these areas. This is where 4IR can be extremely helpful. It has been noted above that the primary issues associated with deploying renewable energy technology are the requirement for sustainable supply and effective distribution networks. In the traditional sense, distribution networks are costly and would require demand to be present to justify the investment, as discussed previously.

That said, energy can also be distributed and quantified in discrete packages. More specifically, battery technology can be used (BESS or Battery Energy Storage Systems). Much like the cycling-to-energy concept, wherein small rechargeable devices are facilitated via inputting energy into the system, the same idea can be applied in rural applications. Smaller installations of renewable energy technology with a suitable BESS allow for the introduction of 4IR technologies in rural communities to aid in skills development in these communities and inspire innovation and growth. The innovation and growth aspect can allow a community to use rudimentary energy forms to outpace the decentralized installations mentioned earlier and create a demand case for these communities. Should the demand case exist, appropriately sized BESS can also be deployed with the larger renewable energy installations to provide constant access to energy and empower local communities to develop and thrive.

To drive the smaller-scale aspects required to realize this vision, 4IR can achieve the same. Small energy systems that allow for the lighting and operation of essential construction equipment will enable productivity. At the same time, communication technologies, such as cell phones and tablets, can provide access to other people and information, which can be used to educate communities about the uses of technologies such as 3D printers. 3D printers can be the basis for a commodity that can be sold for profit, creating a localized money economy, which can lead to access to more powerful means of manufacturing, such as CNC equipment and larger-scale, more complex 3D printing technologies, such as laser sintering and resin-based systems.

The introduction of more complex equipment would create the need for improved short-range communication, wherein computer systems and AI systems can be used to control the new so-called factories put in place by the more complex manufacturing technologies mentioned earlier in this section. Using more advanced manufacturing technologies may require shift work and remote monitoring. This will generate the need to implement an IoT mentality for workers and supervisors at home to facilitate remote working activities as appropriately needed. Improved data availability and control resulting from these measures can then be analyzed and used for business cases to justify further expansion and the establishment of more robust energy supply mechanisms. This would, in turn, create a need that can be fulfilled by international funding and justified locally to develop a distribution network and to deploy renewable energy generation facilities to put on this new energy grid that would be created. This would result in an ongoing development and improvement cycle that will physically and financially empower developing nations to stand on even footing, if not becoming pioneers in 4IR and further developments. That said, the first. In contrast, some reservation is held toward implementing technology such as nanotechnology, machine learning, AI systems, and robotics due to the potential socio-economic impact it may have.

Way Forward for Africa’s Involvement in Industry 4.0

Africa has great potential in renewable energy sources to actualize its industry 4.0 focus. Nearly all African countries can generate hydropower, as they are directly or indirectly linked to the Indian or Atlantic Oceans. Additionally, some very high waterfalls exist in many African countries that need to be exploited for hydropower generation. A good example is the Menchum waterfall in the northwest region of Cameroon. Estimates are that this waterfall can power nearly half of west Africa if utilized. Apart from hydropower, most sub-Saharan African countries have vast land suitable for solar power generation that still needs to be put in use. The key retarding factor to Africa’s fourth industrial revolution is the lack of political will by African governments to design good innovation and digital policies to accelerate its implantation.

Africa is already a global leader in available resources and its youthful population. Still, the region needs to catch up to leverage its potential. It needs to catch up to the rest of the globe regarding connection, data ownership, privacy, and security, digital infrastructure, and overall digital strategies.

Work on digital innovation and policy should be done in collaboration with the corporate sector, civic society, and the development community in Africa and worldwide. The Fourth Industrial Revolution will require robust digital strategies, bolstered innovation and entrepreneurship ecosystems, advanced critical digital infrastructure, improved digital skills, and adequate road infrastructure.

Agricultural modernization is also a critical transformation route to the actualization of Industry 4.0 in Africa. However, this is threatened by the devastating impacts of climate change. Climate-smart agriculture can aid in boosting farmer production by fostering resilience. To convert climate concerns into possibilities, the continent has to implement technological advancements along the entire agricultural value chain. This will increase their ability to compete on a global scale, diversify their economy, and realize Industry 4.0. The political will must be strong across the continent to support the digital economy, improved transportation infrastructure, and labor mobility. Greater regional cooperation will aid in removing previously slowed growth obstacles, mainly by providing restricted public goods like transportation corridors and Internet connection.

The continent of Africa has the potential to harness and benefit greatly from solar energy. The energy is clean, available to all, and capable of generating more than needed. However, the government or corporate entities should be ready to subsidize the initial cost of solar energy farms for its rural population as this is not affordable to the average African household. An excellent way to cut costs would be by creating manufacturing facilities in the continent for solar energy harvesting equipment. This will eliminate the cost of importing solar equipment from the limited manufacturing outlets in Africa. The creation of vast solar farms in different locations for the national grid will avert the issue of reliability related to weather fluctuation in solar technology in Africa.

The continent, through structures like the African Union and Pan-African Parliament, needs to develop proper regulations that will assist with implementing 4IR features in the continent. There have yet to be formal guidelines and rules towards this effect.

New skill sets such as big data capturing and management, cognitive skills, social media management, processing, and problem-solving should be included in Africa’s school curriculum.

5. Conclusions

The role of renewable energy sources and Industry 4.0 focus for Africa was the focus of this review. This review aims to show how Africa as a continent can leverage the promises and opportunities of 4IR. Africa’s major problem in the past was the slow implementation of the 4th industrial revolution. Various technologies can provide renewable energy on an intermittent or full-time basis, each bearing advantages, and disadvantages. A trend is formed by analyzing each technology, which refers to two primary issues associated with deploying renewable energy as a first-line energy solution to developing countries. These issues include energy storage, or more generally, the sustainability of supply and the transmission and distribution of energy in a sustainable way. Improvements will need to be made to the currently available BESS. Technologies such as machine learning, AI development, atomic layer deposition, and nanotechnology may increase the energy density of a given BESS and decrease the environmental impact on the supply chain of the current BESS. The effective use of 4IR can benefit Africa at both the ground level and the developed stage by rectifying shortcomings in present-day technology and social norms. The careful and measured employment of 4IR in Africa will provide significantly more benefits than deficits and should be pursued with the same enthusiasm. This manuscript has highlighted the available renewable energy sources in Africa and how they can contribute towards the actualization of Industry 4.0 for Africa. Solar, hydro, tidal, and wind are the significant sources of energy available that can be harnessed for the full implementation of 4IR. Achieving these goals includes a good political will, greater regional integration, road, and digital infrastructure, well-informed decisions, and innovative policies recommended to help the continent benefit from all available technologies toward implementing the fourth industrial revolution in Africa.