Next Article in Journal
Predictive Modeling of Spring-Back Behavior in V-Bending of SS400 Steel Sheets under Elevated Temperatures Using Combined Hardening Laws
Next Article in Special Issue
Stretching and Eccentric Exercises Normalize Gait Parameters in Gastrocnemius Tightness Subjects
Previous Article in Journal
IoT Edge Device Security: An Efficient Lightweight Authenticated Encryption Scheme Based on LED and PHOTON
Previous Article in Special Issue
Practical Approach to Designing and Implementing a Recommendation System for Healthy Challenges
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 13
Issue 18
10.3390/app131810346
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Effects of Drop Jump Height on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement at Different Ambient Temperatures

by
Weiliang Wu
1,2,
Zhizhou Chen
2,
Chaoqun Chen
2,
Dengpan Xue
2,
Yuanyuan Lv
1,3,* and
Laikang Yu
1,2,*
1
Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness and Exercise, Ministry of Education, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
2
Department of Sports Performance, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
3
China Institute of Sport and Health Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(18), 10346; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810346
Submission received: 14 June 2023 / Revised: 5 September 2023 / Accepted: 14 September 2023 / Published: 15 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Physical Exercise and Wellbeing)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study aimed to determine whether drop jump height will affect the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) effect at room temperature (RT) and low temperature (LT) conditions. Twelve male strength-trained males participated in this study. Prior to warm-up, subjects underwent a 30 min period of environmental adaptation. Different warm-up protocols were used at different ambient temperatures to help subjects achieve a level of muscle activity and body temperature similar to their daily training. After the pre-test, each subject participated in six experimental sessions at either RT or LT conditions, respectively, which were separated by at least 72 h and conducted at the same time of day to control for circadian influences on metabolism. After the conditioning activities, vertical jump (VJ) performance was re-tested at 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min of passive recovery to assess transient potentiation effects. Under RT conditions, 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps could induce PAPE, with the PAPE effect being most significant at 4 min (p < 0.01) and 8 min (p < 0.01), respectively, while a 30 cm drop jump could not induce PAPE. Under LT conditions, 30 cm and 90 cm drop jumps could not induce PAPE, and VJ performance gradually declined over time (p < 0.01). However, although a 60 cm drop jump could not induce PAPE, VJ performance was not affected by LT at 8 min and declined at 12 min (p < 0.05). This study demonstrated that 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps can be used to induce PAPE at RT conditions. LT can impair PAPE induction, while a 60 cm drop jump can be utilized for warm-up at LT conditions to counteract the effects of LT on athletic performance.

1. Introduction

Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) is a physiological phenomenon that leads to a short-term improvement in strength and power performance due to prior muscle activation [1,2]. Factors influencing PAPE include contraction form (concentric, eccentric, isometric, and plyometric), training intensity, training volume (number of sets, repetitions, and rest intervals), subject characteristics (strength, muscle fiber type, and training experience), and subsequent type of explosive activity performance (running and jumping) [3,4,5]. Following a conditioning activity protocol, two states of muscle fatigue and potentiation coexist [6], and the net balance between fatigue and potentiation may influence the subsequent performance. The rest interval used may determine which is superior, fatigue or potentiation, and whether enhanced performance is achieved at different rest intervals. Although the effect of recovery time on subsequent performance needs further study, previous studies have shown that the optimal rest interval is generally between 4 and 12 min [7,8]. Currently, there are no consistent results regarding the peak point of PAPE [8,9]. Studies have shown that jump exercises under additional load can induce PAPE and that the drop jump is an effective means of inducing PAPE [10]. In addition, drop jump height can have an effect on the induction and maintenance of PAPE [11,12,13], and there are no consistent results regarding the optimal height of drop jumps [14,15,16]. It is necessary to fully consider factors such as gender, age, the pattern of landing on one or both feet, and the training level of the subject. A previous study showed that identifying complex training variables based on the individual characteristics of athletes can significantly improve athletic performance [17]. The rate at which muscles are stretched during exercise and the rate of the excitation–contraction coupling during eccentric–concentric movements is critical [18]. Therefore, the time from landing to takeoff is crucial in drop jumps. Muscle stretch-shortening cycles (SSC) of the stretch reflex can recruit more motor units involved in contraction to increase muscle strength and power [19]. Therefore, an appropriate drop height will accelerate the rate of eccentric contraction to concentric contractions, thereby maximizing the short-term effects of PAPE on explosive power.
In competitive sports, important events are held at different times of the year. For example, in preparation for the Summer and Winter Olympic Games, athletes need to train at different ambient temperatures. Ambient temperature can have an impact on athletic performance (such as strength, endurance, speed, agility, and flexibility) and training effects (such as drop jump), and by adapting to the ambient temperature, athletes can achieve optimal training results. The effects of high temperatures on athletic performance are most pronounced during prolonged submaximal exercise, resulting in decreased performance [20]. Ali et al. [21] showed that training in a cold, dry environment resulted in decreased performance due to lower temperatures and drying of the lower respiratory tract. However, it has also been reported that training at an ambient temperature of about 11 °C improves performance in long-term moderate-intensity exercise [22]. The ambient temperature in the Winter Olympic Games is usually between −5 °C and 8 °C. Competing at such temperatures requires athletes to train at similar temperature conditions in their daily training. Therefore, the effects of low temperature (LT) on the athlete’s body must be fully considered in order to better guide training. Studies have shown that the body’s proprioception, resistance and tolerance to stressors, and defensive responses can be enhanced due to cold stimulation at LT conditions [23], resulting in improved athletic performance. However, cold stimulation can also reduce muscle responsiveness and control, especially the ineffective work of the lower limbs [24]. Castellani et al. [25] showed that the negative effect of LT on athletic performance was mainly reflected in a decrease in aerobic capacity. Likewise, strength levels are reduced during LT exposure, mainly due to a decrease in thermoregulatory function caused by a decrease in muscle temperature. Although sprint performance did not appear to be affected during acute LT (6.1 °C) exposure, a significant decrease in vertical jump (VJ) performance was observed compared to the control group (17.2 °C) [26].
Therefore, it is important to determine how the effects of LT on athletic performance can be counteracted by training and how the PAPE “window period” can be used to achieve greater enhancement than the fatigue effect. This study aimed to determine whether drop jump height will affect the PAPE effect at room temperature (RT) and LT conditions.

2. Methods

2.1. Study Design

A randomized crossover study design was used to investigate the acute effects of drop jumps from different heights on VJ performance at RT and LT conditions. In this study, subjects completed six experimental trials consisting of a standardized warm-up, a baseline VJ, and a conditioning activity of three sets of ten drop jumps. After performing one of the 6 conditions (A: 30 cm drop jump at RT (temperature: 25.83 ± 0.55 °C; humidity: 40–60%); B: 30 cm drop jump at LT (temperature: 4.10 ± 0.46 °C; humidity: 40–60%); C: 60 cm drop jump at RT; D: 60 cm drop jump at LT; E: 90 cm drop jump at RT; F: 90 cm drop jump at LT), VJ performance was re-tested after 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min of passive recovery to profile transient potentiation effects. All subjects were instructed to maintain a normal lifestyle and diet and were requested to arrive at the laboratory at least 2–3 h after eating.

2.2. Participants

Twelve strength-trained males (mean age: 19.00 ± 1.71 years; mean height: 180.00 ± 3.93 cm; mass: 69.47 ± 4.73 kg; BMI: 21.43 ± 1.10 kg/m2) with previous experience in plyometric training volunteered to participate in this study. All subjects met the following inclusion criteria: (a) no potential medical problems or a history of ankle, knee, or back pathology that would compromise their participation or performance in the study, (b) at least 2–3 years of strength training experience, and (c) able to squat at least 1.5 times their body weight. The sample size in this study was based on previous studies that used a similar study design and number of subjects [27,28]. All subjects were fully informed of the procedures, possible risks, and purpose of the study and were instructed to abstain from tobacco, caffeine, alcohol, and vigorous exercise for 24 h prior to the study. The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Beijing Sport University, and all procedures were carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Descriptive characteristics of the study subjects can be viewed in Table 1.

2.3. Procedures

One week prior to the start of the study, participants underwent a familiarization session to become familiar with the drop jump protocols and testing procedures. Subjects were requested to arrive at the laboratory between 16:00 and 18:00 to avoid any possible effects of circadian rhythms on neuromuscular responses and athletic performance [27]. Prior to warm-up, subjects underwent a 30 min period of environmental adaptation. Different warm-up programs were used at different ambient temperatures to help subjects achieve a level of muscle activity and body temperature similar to their daily training. Warm-up programs can be viewed in Table 2. After the pre-test, each subject participated in six experimental sessions at either RT or LT, respectively, which were separated by at least 72 h and conducted at the same time of day to control for circadian influences on metabolism. After the conditioning activities, VJ performance was re-tested at 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min of passive recovery to assess transient potentiation effects. The humidity was maintained between 40% and 60%, and temperature and humidity were measured using a thermos-hygrometer (Deli Group Co., Ltd., Ningbo, China). The experimental procedure is presented in Figure 1.

2.4. Vertical Jump Test

Vertical jumping height was assessed using the jump-and-reach test as described in previous studies [29,30]. Subjects were instructed to stand on a flat surface with their feet positioned shoulder-width apart. They were then directed to execute a countermovement jump, commencing from a standing position, transitioning into a semi-squat position, and then jumping as high as possible with free arms, including an arm swing and reach, to touch the vanes. Each subject was given three attempts, and their highest jump was recorded and used for statistical analysis.

2.5. Statistical Analyses

Data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Normality was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk test. To assess training-related effects on VJ performance, a three-way repeated-measure ANOVA was conducted with ambient temperature, jump height, and resting time as factors. The Greenhouse–Geisser adjustment was applied where appropriate. Cohen’s d was used as the effect size (ES) estimation with strengths interpreted as follows: trivial (0–0.2), small (0.2–0.6), moderate (0.6–1.2), large (1.2–2.0), and very large (>2.0) [31]. Experimental data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS statistical software package (version 25.0, IBM, Chicago, IL, USA). The level of significance was set at p < 0.05.

3. Results

Three-way repeated-measure ANOVA revealed an interaction between ambient temperature, jump height, and resting time (F(6,66) = 3.146, p = 0.039), indicating that jump height at different ambient temperatures may significantly affect VJ performance.

3.1. The Effect of Drop Jump Height on PAPE at RT Conditions

As shown in Table 3 and Figure 2a,b, under RT conditions, there was an interaction effect between drop jump height and resting time (F(6,66) = 7.257, p = 0.002), indicating that drop jump height may significantly affect the induction and maintenance of PAPE. Compared with the pre-test, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at a 30 cm drop jump after 4 min (ES, 0.06, 95% CI (−1.18, 1.18), p = 1.000), 8 min (ES, 0.01, 95% CI (−1.01, 1.51), p = 1.000), and 12 min (ES, −0.09, 95% CI (−0.58, 2.25), p = 0.660). However, VJ performance after 4 min (60 cm, ES, 0.57, 95% CI (−4.78, −2.20), p < 0.001; 90 cm, ES, 0.37, 95% CI (−4.10, −0.90), p = 0.002) and 8 min (60 cm, ES, 0.55, 95% CI (−4.51, −1.99), p < 0.001; 90 cm, ES, 0.47, 95% CI (−5.75, −0.75), p = 0.009) of 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps were significantly higher than the pre-test, and the PAPE effect was most significant at 4 min and 8 min, respectively. However, compared with the pre-test, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps after 12 min (60 cm, ES, 0.20, 95% CI (−1.70, −0.63), p = 0.160; 90 cm, ES, 0.19, 95% CI (−2.73, 0.23), p = 0.123), suggesting the disappearance of PAPE. In summary, under RT conditions, jump height had a significant effect on VJ performance, with the 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps inducing PAPE, while the 30 cm drop jump did not induce PAPE.

3.2. The Effect of LT on PAPE

As shown in Table 3 and Figure 2a,b, under LT conditions, there was no interaction between jump height and resting time (F(6,66) = 0.693, p = 0.537), indicating that jump height had no significant effect on the induction and maintenance of PAPE. VJ performance after 4 min (30 cm, ES, −0.19, 95% CI (0.06, 2.44), p = 0.001; 90 cm, ES, −0.25, 95% CI (0.25, 2.92), p = 0.004), 8 min (30 cm, ES, −0.24, 95% CI (−0.11, 3.28), p = 0.000; 90 cm, ES, −0.29, 95% CI (0.32, 3.52), p = 0.002), and 12 min (30 cm, ES, −0.23, 95% CI (−0.60, 3.76), p < 0.001; 90 cm, ES, −0.39, 95% CI (−0.08, 4.42), p < 0.001) of the 30 cm and 90 cm drop jumps were significantly lower than the pre-test, indicating that the 30 cm and 90 cm drop jumps failed to induce PAPE, and the performance gradually decline over time. However, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at 4 min (ES, −0.03, 95% CI (−1.01, 1.34), p = 1.000) and 8 min (ES, −0.14, 95% CI (−0.23, 2.07), p = 0.467) after the 60 cm drop jump, while VJ performance of 12 min was significantly lower than the pre-test (ES, −0.21, 95% CI (−0.14, 2.97), p = 0.046), indicating that although the 60 cm drop jump failed to induce PAPE, performance was not affected by LT at 8 min and declined at 12 min. In summary, under LT conditions, PAPE was not induced by drop jumps of different heights.
As shown in Table 3 and Figure 3a–c, compared with RT conditions, there was no significant difference in VJ performance before the 30 cm (p = 0.438), 60 cm (p = 1.000), and 90 cm (p = 1.000) drop jumps at LT conditions, indicating that the preparation activities at LT conditions achieved the same warm-up effect as the RT conditions. However, VJ performance after 4 min (30 cm, p = 0.003; 60 cm, p < 0.001; 90 cm, p < 0.001), 8 min (30 cm, p = 0.023; 60 cm, p < 0.001; 90 cm, p < 0.001), and 12 min (30 cm, p = 0.032; 60 cm, p = 0.001; 90 cm, p = 0.004) of the 30 cm, 60 cm, and 90 cm drop jumps were lower at RT conditions, indicating that LT can significantly affect the induction and maintenance of PAPE, with a decrease in VJ performance at all time points after the 30 cm, 60 cm, and 90 cm drop jumps.

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to determine whether drop jump height will affect the PAPE effect at RT and LT conditions. The results showed that under RT conditions, the 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps induced PAPE, and the PAPE effect was most significant at 4 min and 8 min, respectively, while the 30 cm drop jump did not induce PAPE. Under LT conditions, the 30 cm and 90 cm drop jumps did not induce PAPE, and VJ performance gradually declined over time. However, although the 60 cm drop jump did not induce PAPE, VJ performance was not affected by the LT at 8 min and declined at 12 min.

4.1. The Effect of Drop Jump Height on PAPE at RT Conditions

Studies have shown that drop jump training can be effective in improving rapid strength levels, which is important for sports that emphasize explosive power [32,33]. However, the explosive factor occupies an important place in PAPE. A study by Karampatsos et al. [6] showed that three sets of drop jump training significantly increased the throwing distance of hammer throwers after 1 min, suggesting a significant PAPE effect. Training intensity is the most important factor in inducing PAPE, and different drop jump heights have different effects on PAPE. Wilson et al. [34] showed that induced PAPE was most effective in improving athletic performance at 60–84% one-repetition maximum (1RM) load intensity. A moderate intensity (i.e., 80% 1RM) may result in significant increases in jumping, repetitive changes in direction velocity, and non-repetitive changes in direction velocity in elite male soccer players compared to low-intensity (60% 1RM) and high-intensity (100% 1RM) warm-up protocols [35]. Our results showed that under RT conditions, VJ performance after 4 min and 8 min of 60 cm drop jumps were significantly higher than the pre-test, and the PAPE effect was most significant at 4 min, which was consistent with Tobin et al. [36]. In addition, VJ performance after 4 min and 8 min of a 90 cm drop jump was significantly higher than the pre-test, and the PAPE effect was most significant at 8 min, which was in agreement with the findings of Kilduff et al. [37], where the jumping performance of rugby players was significantly improved 8 min after three sets of an 87% 1RM back squat. However, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at a 30 cm drop jump after 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min. The effect of recovery time after PAPE induction on subsequent performance needs further study. Beato et al. [38] showed that a significant PAPE window period occurred 3–7 min after load stimulation, i.e., the enhancement effect was greater than the fatigue effect. In addition, a study by Kilduff et al. [37] on professional football players showed that PAPE appeared at 8 min and 12 min, while the optimal recovery time occurred at 8 min. Furthermore, Lowery et al. [39] showed that VJ height and output power increased significantly after resistance training at moderate intensity (70% 1RM) and high intensity (93% 1RM), while the PAPE effect was most significant at 4 min.
Previous studies have shown that the fatigue effect is believed to dominate immediately after conditioning activities, but the enhancement effect lasts longer. Therefore, a precise schedule is needed for the improvement of athletic performance, and the enhancement effect can be greater than the fatigue effect if the rest interval is long enough. However, the rest interval should not be too long to avoid a decrease in the enhancement effect [17,40]. In the present study, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps after 12 min compared to the pre-test. The failure of the PAPE effect to be maintained over 12 min may be due to the enhancement effect being counteracted by the fatigue effect. Many studies have reported the effects of different drop jump heights on training outcomes, and their findings suggest that the optimal drop jump height is not fixed and will exist within a range due to individual differences in athletes [41,42,43]. In addition, a previous study has shown that the results are highly individualized for each individual, and there is no consistent training intensity or rest interval that increases the vertical jump height the most for all subjects [36]. Therefore, there will be individualized differences in the duration of maintenance of the PAPE effect due to the different training experience and exercise capacity of the subjects, which is consistent with the findings of Villarreal et al. [8], who showed that in all countermovement jump (CMJ) tests after interventions, the PAPE response was significantly higher in the dominant group than the inferior group, with the greatest enhancement effect 6 min after the test in the dominant group and 9 min after the test in the inferior group.
Currently, there is some controversy regarding the choice of optimal height for drop jump training. Some studies have used 40 cm as the optimal drop jump height, while Decker et al. [12] reported that a jump height of 60–80 cm produced greater power than a drop jump height of 40 cm. However, Viitasalo et al. [13] showed that compared to 40 cm, 80 cm drop jump training produced shorter ground contact times, and the vertical ground reaction force was greater. In addition, a previous study has shown that athletes who chose a height of 80 cm for drop jump training achieved better results at the Gymnastics World Championships than athletes who chose heights of 20 cm, 40 cm, 60 cm, and 100 cm [43].

4.2. The Effect of LT on PAPE

Different ambient temperatures have varying effects on athletic performance, and by adapting to these temperatures, athletes can achieve optimal training results. We next explored whether LT would have an effect on the induction and maintenance of PAPE. Our results showed that under LT conditions, VJ performance after 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min of 30 cm and 90 cm drop jumps were significantly lower than the pre-test. However, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at 4 min and 8 min after the 60 cm drop jump, while VJ performance at 12 min was significantly lower than the pre-test, indicating that under LT conditions, PAPE was not induced by drop jumps of different heights. In addition, compared with RT conditions, VJ performance after 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min of 30 cm, 60 cm, and 90 cm drop jumps were lower than at RT conditions. This may be due to the fact that muscle movement becomes sluggish with the decrease in temperature when a drop jump is performed at LT conditions [43]. This phenomenon can be explained by the results of Bergh et al. [44], who showed a 4.2% decrease in muscle explosive power for every 1 °C decrease in core temperature. In addition, Oksa et al. [45] also showed that muscle temperature decreased at LT conditions, which in turn led to a significant decrease in VJ takeoff time. Furthermore, Ferretti et al. [46] showed that blood flow to the muscles of the lower limbs was significantly reduced after exercise at LT conditions, leading to a decrease in muscle contractile function and impaired athletic performance. At the same time, LT can lead to a decrease in the maximum contraction force of the muscle, while the force–velocity curve can shift to the left, which in turn reduces the rate of force generation during exercise and affects athletic performance [47].
However, under LT conditions, there was no significant difference in VJ performance at 4 min and 8 min after the 60 cm drop jump compared to the pre-test, while VJ performance at 12 min was significantly lower than the pre-test. Combined with the results that PAPE was effectively induced by a 60 cm drop jump at RT conditions and the PAPE effect was most significant at 4 min and was maintained until 8 min, the effect of PAPE induced by a 60 cm drop jump offset the influence of LT on VJ performance. Riera et al. [48] showed that exercise in LT conditions requires additional muscle effort to maintain athletic performance in order for the body to generate sufficient energy to maintain core temperature and compensate for heat loss, and, therefore, the fatigue produced by exercise results in an offsetting enhancement effect. In addition, many studies have shown that the blood lactate concentration is higher during exercise at LT conditions compared to RT conditions [49,50], which suggests that the body provides energy for exercise at LT conditions mainly through anaerobic metabolism. However, anaerobic capacity is affected by LT [51], which can affect athletic performance at LT conditions. In addition, LT may affect the ability of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen to working muscles and the ability of metabolism to produce sufficient energy [47]. Furthermore, Ferretti et al. [46] found a significant decrease in muscle temperature in the lower limb after a study on six healthy subjects after prolonged exposure to water below the abdomen at 20 °C. In summary, LT resulted in a decrease in muscle temperature, with the fatigue effect accounting for the dominant, and the enhancement effect was small.
However, PAPE was effectively induced by a 90 cm drop jump at RT conditions, and the PAPE effect was most significant at 8 min, while VJ performance after 4 min, 8 min, and 12 min of 90 cm drop jumps were significantly lower than the pre-test at LT conditions. This may be due to the fact that LT reduces the muscle contractile function. Furthermore, since the PAPE effect was most significant at 8 min, the PAPE effect at 4 min was not sufficient to offset the influence of LT on VJ performance.

4.3. Limitations

This study has several limitations that should be noted. First, the relatively small sample size of this study makes it highly desirable to conduct future studies with larger sample sizes. Second, our observations to date are primarily applicable to strength-trained males, and there is a need to extend observations to cover females, other age groups, and other skill levels. In addition, further studies are also needed on more different drop heights and ambient temperatures to determine the optimal drop height for athletes to benefit from PAPE at different ambient temperatures. Finally, since the participants of this study were not athletes accustomed to training at LT conditions, our findings may not apply to those who are accustomed to training at LT conditions.

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrated that 60 cm and 90 cm drop jumps can be used to induce PAPE at RT conditions. LT can impair PAPE induction, while a 60 cm drop jump can be utilized for warm-up at LT conditions to counteract the effects of LT on athletic performance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.Y. and W.W.; methodology, W.W. and Z.C.; software, W.W.; validation, C.C. and D.X.; formal analysis, W.W.; investigation, W.W., Z.C., C.C., D.X. and Y.L.; resources, L.Y.; data curation, Y.L.; writing—original draft preparation, W.W. and Z.C.; writing—review and editing, L.Y.; visualization, Y.L.; supervision, L.Y.; project administration, L.Y.; funding acquisition, L.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China, grant number 2022YFC3600201, and the Chinese Universities Scientific Fund, grant numbers 2021QN001 and 2022QN015.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Beijing Sport University (protocol code 2022112H, 16 May 2022).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the present study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Krzysztofik, M.; Kalinowski, R.; Trybulski, R.; Filip-Stachnik, A.; Stastny, P. Enhancement of Countermovement Jump Performance Using a Heavy Load with Velocity-Loss Repetition Control in Female Volleyball Players. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Trybulski, R.; Makar, P.; Alexe, D.I.; Stanciu, S.; Piwowar, R.; Wilk, M.; Krzysztofik, M. Post-Activation Performance Enhancement: Save Time with Active Intra-Complex Recovery Intervals. Front. Physiol. 2022, 13, 840722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Lesinski, M.; Muehlbauer, T.; Büsch, D.; Granacher, U. Effects of complex training on strength and speed performance in athletes: A systematic review. Effects of complex training on athletic performance. Sport. Sportschaden 2014, 28, 85–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Seitz, L.B.; Haff, G.G. Factors Modulating Post-Activation Potentiation of Jump, Sprint, Throw, and Upper-Body Ballistic Performances: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Sports Med. 2016, 46, 231–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Seitz, L.B.; Reyes, A.; Tran, T.T.; De Villarreal, E.S.; Haff, G.G. Increases in lower-body strength transfer positively to sprint performance: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2014, 44, 1693–1702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Latorre-Román, P.Á.; García-Pinillos, F.; Martínez-López, E.J.; Soto-Hermoso, V.M. Concurrent Fatigue and Postactivation Potentiation during Extended Interval Training in Long-Distance Runners. Mot. Rev. Educ. Física 2014, 20, 423–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Seitz, L.B.; De Villarreal, E.S.; Haff, G.G. The temporal profile of postactivation potentiation is related to strength level. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2014, 28, 706–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Dello, I.A.; Seitz, L.B. Hip thrust-based PAP effects on sprint performance of soccer players: Heavy-loaded versus optimum-power development protocols. J. Sports Sci. 2018, 36, 2375–2382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Gouvêa, A.L.; Fernandes, I.A.; César, E.P.; Silva, W.A.B.; Gomes, P.S.C. The effects of rest intervals on jumping performance: A meta-analysis on post-activation potentiation studies. J. Sports Sci. 2013, 31, 459–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Karampatsos, G.; Terzis, G.; Polychroniou, C.; Georgiadis, G. Acute effects of jumping and sprinting on hammer throwing performance. Phys. Educ. Sport 2013, 13, 3–5. [Google Scholar]
  11. Lees, A.; Fahmi, E. Optimal drop heights for plyometric training. Ergonomics 1994, 37, 141–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Decker, A.J.; Mccaw, S.T. Target heights alter the energetics of drop jumps when drop height is held constant. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2012, 26, 3237–3242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Viitasalo, J.T.; Salo, A.; Lahtinen, J. Neuromuscular functioning of athletes and non-athletes in the drop jump. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1998, 78, 432–440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Peng, H.T. Changes in biomechanical properties during drop jumps of incremental height. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2011, 25, 2510–2518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Cherni, Y.; Hammami, M.; Jelid, M.C.; Aloui, G.; Suzuki, k.; Shephard, R.J.; Chelly, M.S. Neuromuscular Adaptations and Enhancement of Physical Performance in Female Basketball Players After 8 Weeks of Plyometric Training. Front. Physiol. 2020, 11, 588787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Trzaskoma, L.; Tihanyi, J.; Trzaskoma, Z. The effect of a short-term combined conditioning training for the development of leg strength and power. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2010, 24, 2498–2505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Mccann, M.R.; Flanagan, S.P. The effects of exercise selection and rest interval on postactivation potentiation of vertical jump performance. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2010, 24, 1285–1291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Bosco, C.; Tarkka, I.; Komi, P.V. Effect of elastic energy and myoelectrical potentiation of triceps surae during stretch-shortening cycle exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 1982, 3, 137–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Chimera, N.J.; Swanik, K.A.; Swanik, C.B.; Straub, S.J. Effects of Plyometric Training on Muscle-Activation Strategies and Performance in Female Athletes. J. Athl. Train. 2004, 39, 24–31. [Google Scholar]
  20. Fortney, S.M.; Vroman, N.B. Exercise, performance and temperature control: Temperature regulation during exercise and implications for sports performance and training. Sports Med. 1985, 2, 8–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Ali, Z.; Norsk, P.; Ulrik, C.S. Mechanisms and management of exercise-induced asthma in elite athletes. J. Asthma 2012, 49, 480–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Sandsund, M.; Saursaunet, V.; Wiggen, Ø.; Renberg, J.; Færevik, H.; Van Beekvelt, M.C.P. Effect of ambient temperature on endurance performance while wearing cross-country skiing clothing. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2012, 112, 3939–3947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Manolis, A.S.; Manolis, S.A.; Manolis, A.A.; Manolis, T.A.; Apostolaki, N.; Melita, H. Winter Swimming: Body Hardening and Cardiorespiratory Protection Via Sustainable Acclimation. Curr. Sports Med. Rep. 2019, 18, 401–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Slater, L.V.; Vriner, M.; Schuyten, K.; Zapalo, P.; Hart, J.M. Sex Differences in Y-Balance Performance in Elite Figure Skaters. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2020, 34, 1416–1421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Castellani, J.W.; Tipton, M.J. Cold Stress Effects on Exposure Tolerance and Exercise Performance. Compr. Physiol. 2015, 6, 443–469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Carlson, L.A.; Fowler, C.; Lawrence, M.A. Agility and Vertical Jump Performances Are Impacted by Acute Cool Exposure. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2019, 33, 1648–1652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Bridgeman, L.A.; Mcguigan, M.R.; Gill, N.D.; Dulson, D.K. The Effects of Accentuated Eccentric Loading on the Drop Jump Exercise and the Subsequent Postactivation Potentiation Response. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2017, 31, 1620–1626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Chen, Z.R.; Wang, Y.H.; Peng, H.T.; Yu, C.F.; Wang, M.H. The acute effect of drop jump protocols with different volumes and recovery time on countermovement jump performance. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2013, 27, 154–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Menzel, H.J.; Chagas, M.H.; Szmuchrowski, L.A.; Araujo, S.R.; Campos, C.E.; Giannetti, M.R. Usefulness of the jump-and-reach test in assessment of vertical jump performance. Percept. Mot. Skills 2010, 110, 150–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Brooks, E.R.; Benson, A.C.; Bruce, L.M. Novel Technologies Found to be Valid and Reliable for the Measurement of Vertical Jump Height with Jump-and-Reach Testing. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2018, 32, 2838–2845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Hopkins, W.G.; Marshall, S.W.; Batterham, A.M.; Hanin, J. Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2009, 41, 3–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Chelly, M.S.; Hermassi, S.; Shephard, R.J. Effects of In-Season Short-term Plyometric Training Program on Sprint and Jump Performance of Young Male Track Athletes. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2015, 29, 2128–2136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Chelly, M.S.; Ghenem, M.A.; Abid, K.; Hermassi, S.; Tabka, Z.; Shephard, R.J. Effects of in-season short-term plyometric training program on leg power, jump- and sprint performance of soccer players. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2010, 24, 2670–2676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Wilson, J.M.; Duncan, N.M.; Marin, P.J.; Brown, L.E.; Loenneke, J.P.; Wilson, S.M.C.; Jo, E.; Lowery, R.P.; Ugrinowitsch, C. Meta-analysis of postactivation potentiation and power: Effects of conditioning activity, volume, gender, rest periods, and training status. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2013, 27, 854–859. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Petisco, C.; Ramirez-Campillo, R.; Hernández, D.; Gonzalo-Skok, O.; Nakamura, F.Y.; Sanchez-Sanchez, J. Post-activation Potentiation: Effects of Different Conditioning Intensities on Measures of Physical Fitness in Male Young Professional Soccer Players. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 1167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Tobin, D.P.; Delahunt, E. The acute effect of a plyometric stimulus on jump performance in professional rugby players. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2014, 28, 367–372. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kilduff, L.P.; Owen, N.; Bevan, H.; Bennett, M.; Kingsley, M.I.C.; Cunningham, D. Influence of recovery time on post-activation potentiation in professional rugby players. J. Sports Sci. 2008, 26, 795–802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Beato, M.; Bigby, A.E.J.; De Keijzer, K.L.; Nakamura, F.Y.; Coratella, G.; McErlain-Naylor, S.A. Post-activation potentiation effect of eccentric overload and traditional weightlifting exercise on jumping and sprinting performance in male athletes. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0222466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Lowery, R.P.; Duncan, N.M.; Loenneke, J.P.; Sikorski, E.M.; Naimo, M.A.; Brown, L.E.; Wilson, F.G.; Wilson, J.M. The effects of potentiating stimuli intensity under varying rest periods on vertical jump performance and power. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2012, 26, 3320–3325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Chen, Y.; Su, Q.; Yang, J.; Li, G.; Zhang, S.; Lv, Y.; Yu, L. Effects of rest interval and training intensity on jumping performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis investigating post-activation performance enhancement. Front. Physiol. 2023, 14, 1202789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Pedley, J.S.; Lloyd, R.S.; Read, P.J.; Moore, I.S.; Myer, G.D.; Oliver, J.L. A Novel Method to Categorize Stretch-Shortening Cycle Performance Across Maturity in Youth Soccer Players. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2020, 36, 2573–2580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Matavulj, D.; Kukolj, M.; Ugarkovic, D.; Tihanyi, J.; Jaric, S. Effects of plyometric training on jumping performance in junior basketball players. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2001, 41, 159–164. [Google Scholar]
  43. Marina, M.; Jemni, M.; Rodríguez, F.A.; Jimenez, A. Plyometric jumping performances of male and female gymnasts from different heights. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2012, 26, 1879–1886. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Bergh, U.; Ekblom, B. Influence of muscle temperature on maximal muscle strength and power output in human skeletal muscles. Acta Physiol. Scand. 1979, 107, 33–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Oksa, J.; Rintamäki, H.; Rissanen, S. Muscle performance and electromyogram activity of the lower leg muscles with different levels of cold exposure. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1997, 75, 484–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Ferretti, G.; Ishii, M.; Moia, C.; Cerretelli, P. Effects of temperature on the maximal instantaneous muscle power of humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1992, 64, 112–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Gatterer, H.; Dünnwald, T.; Turner, R.; Csapo, R.; Schobersberger, W.; Burtscher, M.; Faulhaber, M.; Kennedy, M.D. Practicing Sport in Cold Environments: Practical Recommendations to Improve Sport Performance and Reduce Negative Health Outcomes. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Riera, F.; Bellenoue, S.; Fischer, S.; Méric, H. Impact of a Cold Environment on the Performance of Professional Cyclists: A Pilot Study. Life 2021, 11, 1326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Jay, O.; Havenith, G. Finger skin cooling on contact with cold materials: A comparison between male and female responses during short-term exposures. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004, 91, 373–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Wiggen, Ø.N.; Waagaard, S.H.; Heidelberg, C.T.; Oksa, J. Effect of cold conditions on double poling sprint performance of well-trained male cross-country skiers. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2013, 27, 3377–3383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Stecker, M.M.; Baylor, K. Peripheral nerve at extreme low temperatures 1: Effects of temperature on the action potential. Cryobiology 2009, 59, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Applsci 13 10346 g001
Figure 1. The experimental design.
Figure 1. The experimental design.
Applsci 13 10346 g001
Applsci 13 10346 g002
Figure 2. (a,b) Vertical jump height at the baseline and after completing drop jump training at different ambient temperatures: (a) room temperature; (b) low temperature. Compared with pre-test, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01; ## p < 0.01; & p < 0.05.
Figure 2. (a,b) Vertical jump height at the baseline and after completing drop jump training at different ambient temperatures: (a) room temperature; (b) low temperature. Compared with pre-test, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01; ## p < 0.01; & p < 0.05.
Applsci 13 10346 g002
Applsci 13 10346 g003
Figure 3. (a–c) Difference in vertical jump height at RT and LT conditions for the same drop jump height. RT, room temperature; LT, low temperature: (a) 30 cm drop jump; (b) 60 cm drop jump; (c) 90 cm drop jump. Compared with RT conditions, * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Figure 3. (a–c) Difference in vertical jump height at RT and LT conditions for the same drop jump height. RT, room temperature; LT, low temperature: (a) 30 cm drop jump; (b) 60 cm drop jump; (c) 90 cm drop jump. Compared with RT conditions, * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Applsci 13 10346 g003
Table 1. Participants’ physical characteristics (n = 12).
Table 1. Participants’ physical characteristics (n = 12).
Mean ± SD
Age (years)19.00 ± 1.71
Height (cm)180.00 ± 3.93
Weight (kg)69.47 ± 4.73
Body mass index (kg/m2)21.43 ± 1.10
Table 2. Warm-up programs for RT and LT conditions.
Table 2. Warm-up programs for RT and LT conditions.
RTLT
Jogging5 min10 min
Muscle activationShoulder circles: 1 set × 12 reps
Mountain climber: 1 set × 18 reps
Single leg glute bridges: 1 set × 12 reps		Shoulder circles: 1 set × 18 reps
Mountain climber: 1 set × 24 reps
Single leg glute bridges: 1 set × 18 reps
Dynamic stretchingSuperman: 1 set × 8 reps
Squat: 1 set × 8 reps
Inchworm: 1 set × 8 reps
90/90 for hips: 1 set × 8 reps
Lunge walk: 1 set × 8 reps
Walking knee lift: 1 set × 8 reps		Superman: 1 set × 8 reps
Squat: 1 set × 8 reps
Inchworm: 1 set × 8 reps
90/90 for hips: 1 set × 8 reps
Lunge walk: 1 set × 8 reps
Walking knee lift: 1 set × 8 reps
Motor-skill integrationVertical jump: 1 set × 6 repsVertical jump: 1 set × 6 reps
Neural activationHigh knees: 1 set × 8 sHigh knees: 1 set × 8 s
Note: RT, room temperature; LT, low temperature; reps, repetitions.
Table 3. Comparisons of vertical jump heights over the distinct resting times after drop jump training at different ambient temperatures.
Table 3. Comparisons of vertical jump heights over the distinct resting times after drop jump training at different ambient temperatures.
Drop Jump HeightPre (cm)4 min (cm)8 min (cm)12 min (cm)Effect Size (95% Confidence Interval)
4 min vs. Pre8 min vs. Pre12 min vs. Pre
RT30 cm302.50 ± 5.97302.83 ± 5.34302.58 ± 5.60302.00 ± 5.390.06
(−1.18, 1.18)		0.01
(−1.01, 1.51)		−0.09
(−0.58, 2.25)
60 cm302.33 ± 5.94305.83 ± 6.31 **305.58 ± 5.79 **303.50 ± 5.930.57
(−4.78, −2.20)		0.55
(−4.51, −1.99)		0.20
(−1.70, −0.63)
90 cm302.67 ± 6.08305.17 ± 7.51 **305.92 ± 7.54 **303.92 ± 7.130.37
(−4.10, −0.90)		0.47
(−5.75, −0.75)		0.19
(−2.73, 0.23)
LT30 cm302.33 ± 6.69301.08 ± 6.23 *##300.75 ± 6.72 *#300.75 ± 6.97 *#−0.19
(0.06, 2.44)		−0.24
(−0.11, 3.28)		−0.23
(−0.60, 3.76)
60 cm302.33 ± 6.54302.17 ± 6.00 ##301.42 ± 6.24 ##300.92 ± 6.67 *##−0.03
(−1.01, 1.34)		−0.14
(−0.23, 2.07)		−0.21
(−0.14, 2.97)
90 cm302.67 ± 6.23301.08 ± 6.52 **##300.75 ± 7.07 **##300.42 ± 5.33 **##−0.25
(0.25, 2.92)		−0.29
(0.32, 3.52)		−0.39
(−0.08, 4.42)
Note: RT, room temperature; LT, low temperature. Compared to pre-test, * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01. Compared to RT, # p < 0.05; ## p < 0.01.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Wu, W.; Chen, Z.; Chen, C.; Xue, D.; Lv, Y.; Yu, L. The Effects of Drop Jump Height on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement at Different Ambient Temperatures. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 10346. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810346

AMA Style

Wu W, Chen Z, Chen C, Xue D, Lv Y, Yu L. The Effects of Drop Jump Height on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement at Different Ambient Temperatures. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(18):10346. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810346

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wu, Weiliang, Zhizhou Chen, Chaoqun Chen, Dengpan Xue, Yuanyuan Lv, and Laikang Yu. 2023. "The Effects of Drop Jump Height on Post-Activation Performance Enhancement at Different Ambient Temperatures" Applied Sciences 13, no. 18: 10346. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131810346

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop