1. Introduction
Rapid development of the world economy brings a growing demand for transportation. Diesel engines have become the primary power source for surface transport due to their high thermal efficiency. However, their wide application is limited by high emission levels and high fuel consumption. In order to address the environmental pollution and energy crisis caused by diesel engines, alternative fuels are considered to be effective solutions. In the past decade, various types of alternative engine fuels such as hydrogen (H
2), dimethyl ether (DME), alcohols, biofuels, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and some synthetic fuels have been extensively investigated. Among these candidates, hydrogen stands out as the most promising alternative fuel. The high burning rate of hydrogen improves the in-cylinder combustion process, while its wide combustion limit extends the lean limit of engine operation. Additionally, the only product of hydrogen combustion is water, which effectively reduces harmful emissions [
1,
2]. Thus, hydrogen is strongly encouraged in the field of internal combustion engines.
However, compression ignition (CI) of pure hydrogen is challenging due to its high auto-ignition temperature, which prevents its application in unmodified diesel engines. As a result, researchers have favored the use of diesel-hydrogen blends instead of pure hydrogen. The performance and emission characteristics of CI engines fueled with hydrogen-diesel blends have been extensively investigated. Ghazal [
3] reported a 14% increase in engine power at high engine speeds and a 70% increase in engine power at high air-fuel ratios when hydrogen addition reached 40%. Qin et al. [
4] investigated the combustion characteristics of a hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine and observed that as the hydrogen substitution rate increased, the heat release rate (HRR) and thermal efficiency increased simultaneously. Liew et al. [
5] examined the effect of hydrogen addition on engine combustion and revealed a significant decrease in combustion duration through hydrogen enrichment. Shigeru Miyamoto et al. [
6] stated that the introduction of hydrogen led to an increase in NOx emissions. Kumar et al. [
7] proposed a combustion model to predict the emissions of a diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel engine and achieved good agreement between simulation and experimental data across various operating conditions, thus ensuring accurate predictions. Ramsay et al. [
8] conducted a numerical study of a diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel CI engine and showed that an optimized injection strategy could improve the thermal efficiency of a dual-fuel engine without worsening the emissions.
In addition to the hydrogen substitution ratio, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) can significantly influence the in-cylinder composition. Loganathan et al. [
9] examined a hydrogen-diesel direct injection (DI) engine with EGR and observed that increasing the EGR ratio led to higher peak HRR, combustion duration, and cyclic pressure fluctuation. Nag et al. [
10] explored a hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel CI engine by varying the engine load, fuel composition, and EGR ratio. The results showed that the engine emissions were reduced by adjusting the EGR rate in dual-fuel mode. Wu et al. [
11] simultaneously tuned the intake air temperature, fuel composition, and EGR ratio of a hydrogen-diesel engine by employing the classical Taguchi method. Through this approach, they were able to identify an optimal combination of parameters and achieved advancements in emissions, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and brake thermal (BTE) efficiency. Furthermore, a comparative experimental investigation was carried out on a hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine, with variations in engine loads, EGR ratios, and intake air boosting conditions [
12]. The results indicated that an appropriate level of hydrogen addition considerably mitigated both NOx and particulate emissions.
Based on previous research, the addition of hydrogen to diesel offers significant advantages in terms of enhancing performance and reducing emissions. However, the widespread adoption of hydrogen is limited by its expensive storage costs. A possible solution is on-board generating of hydrogen-rich gas from other compounds through the recovery of exhaust heat [
13]. The most commonly employed methods for on-board hydrogen production include steam reforming, autothermal reforming, catalytic dissociation, and partial oxidation. A comparative study of three on-board approaches for generating hydrogen, namely steam reforming, autothermal reforming, and partial oxidation from diesel fuel, was conducted by Chuahy and Kokjohn [
14]. The results demonstrated that the adoption of all three methods could improve engine efficiency. Among the methods, steam reforming proved to be the most effective method, resulting in an 8% increase in global efficiency compared to the baseline. The enhancement achieved by autothermal reforming was slightly lower than that of steam reforming. In contrast, the global efficiency improvement from partial oxidation was significantly less compared to the other two methods. Sittichompoo et al. [
15] studied hydrogen production methods from ammonia dissociation catalytic decomposition and ammonia reforming by recovering the exhaust heat from a gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine. The results indicated that different methods yielded similar improvements in fuel economy and CO
2 emissions.
The sources of on-board hydrogen production can be diverse. Coal, natural gas, methane, methanol, ethanol, gasoline, ammonia, biomass, and some other fuels have been utilized for hydrogen production. Methanol is the most commonly used feedstock for hydrogen production due to its abundant resources and relatively high hydrogen production rate. Two practical approaches for generating hydrogen from methanol are steam reforming and catalytic dissociation; both approaches are endothermic reactions and require external energy input. Engine exhaust gas energy can be recovered and used as a heat source. In terms of hydrogen yield, steam reforming produces more hydrogen than catalytic dissociation for the same mass of methanol, but it requires more reaction energy and additional water. In our latest study [
16], a methanol catalytic dissociation system was successfully implemented in a spark-ignition gasoline engine.
The composition of syngas, which varies depending on the feedstock used for generating hydrogen, can have a significant impact on the performance and emissions of a diesel engine. In a study conducted by Sahoo et al. [
17], a diesel engine was fueled with three different syngas compositions under various loads. The results demonstrated that at higher loads, better performance was achieved with a decrease in the fraction of hydrogen (H
2), while higher levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions were observed with an increase in the CO fraction. Similar findings were reported by Bhaduri [
18], who found that increasing the H
2/CO ratio in syngas led to reduced HC and CO emissions in an HCCI engine. Christodoulou and Megaritis [
19] conducted experimental and numerical studies on a diesel engine fueled with a mixture of diesel, nitrogen (N
2), and syngas. The results revealed that the introduction of syngas + N
2 into the diesel fuel reduced nitrogen oxide (NOx), CO, and soot emissions under specific operating conditions, albeit increasing fuel consumption at all test points. Additionally, Karimkashi et al. [
20] carried out a modeling study on the ignition characteristics of a hydrogen-methanol-diesel mixture. They reported that low and intermediate concentrations of hydrogen in the mixture had minor effects on the first and second stages of ignition delay times, while high concentrations of hydrogen significantly reduced the ignition delay. Furthermore, Chuahy and Kokjohn [
21] suggested that a higher H
2/CO ratio in reformed fuel resulted in a shorter combustion duration and lower heat release during the reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) combustion process. These research findings indicate that the performance as well as the combustion and emission characteristics of an engine are influenced by changes in fuel composition.
The studies mentioned above have primarily focused on compression ignition (CI) engines fueled with diesel-hydrogen mixtures and diesel-steam reformed gas mixtures. However, there is limited research on CI engines fueled with a blend of diesel and methanol dissociation gas (DMG). In our previous investigation [
16], the hydrogen content in DMG was between 60.7% and 64.8%, the CO content was between 19.1% and 23.1%, the methanol content was between 8.3% and 10.9%, and there was a small amount of by-products (carbon dioxide, methane, dimethyl ether, etc.) once the reaction temperature of 380–400 °C, the space velocity of 1.2–1.5/h, and a copper-based catalytic reactor were adopted. The changes in fuel composition and operation parameters may have had an impact on the engine working process. Consequently, in this study, we conduct a numerical investigation on a CI engine fueled with a blend of diesel and DMG at various substitution ratios and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates. The objective is to explore the combination effects of DMG substitution ratio and EGR rate on the engine’s performance, combustion, and emission characteristics.