Next Article in Journal
Special Feature: Permanent and Long-Term Biodegradable Biomaterials
Next Article in Special Issue
High Cellulose Purity by Acid Hydrolysis Pretreatment on Kenaf Outer Bast
Previous Article in Journal
Privacy-Preserving Outsourced Artificial Neural Network Training for Secure Image Classification
Previous Article in Special Issue
Study of Refining Effect of Mixed Pulps Using Refiner Plates with Different Bar Patterns
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 12
Issue 24
10.3390/app122412871
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Properties of Green Tea Waste as Cosmetics Ingredients and Rheology Enhancers

by
Audrey Zahra
1,
Seo-Kyoung Lim
1,
Soo-Jeong Shin
1,* and
Ik-Jun Yeon
2,*
1
Department of Wood and Paper Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Environmental Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation, Chungju 27469, Chungbuk, Republic of Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(24), 12871; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412871
Submission received: 11 November 2022 / Revised: 8 December 2022 / Accepted: 13 December 2022 / Published: 14 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Pulp and Paper Technologies)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Green tea waste (GTW) is a naturally abundant material, and it has not been widely reused into more valuable materials. The composition of GTW was identified using NMR for carbohydrate composition, an element analyzer for protein content, acetone and hot water extraction for evaluating extractives, and Klason lignin for lignin content. GTW can be converted into nanoparticles by carboxymethylation as pretreatment of the degree of substitutions (DS) and high-pressure homogenizer for nanoparticle making. GTW was prepared using various DS 0 until DS 0.4. The results showed that GTW DS has a more than −30 mV zeta potential, suitable for stable nanoemulsion formulations. The particle size of GTW DS decreases with increasing carboxyl content in the hydrogel, which has a width and length from GTW DS 0.3 to DS 0.4. As a humectant, the water retention value (WRV) of GTW with various DS was increased; DS 0.3 is the best. DS 0.4 has the highest viscosity, storage, and loss modulus as rheology modifiers.

1. Introduction

One of the most famous consumed drinks in the world is green tea [1,2]. Camellia sinensis leaves are consumed worldwide, as are oolong, black or green teas [3]. It is estimated in the world to have produced approximately 2.5 million tons of tea every year, and 20% of it is green tea [4]. Green tea ingestion has the most significant impact on human health [5,6].
As tea is distributed worldwide, the demand for tea has increased [7]. In May 2016, the 22nd Intergovernmental Tea Working Group (FAO-IGG/Tea) meeting was held in Naivasha, Kenya [6,8]. The meeting analyzed the current tea production and the growth trend of tea production in the next ten years [6,8]. According to analysis, the total output of world tea (black tea, green tea, instant, etc.) in 2014 reached 5.13 million tons, and it will grow at a rate of 3.7% (black tea) and 9.1% (green tea) in the next ten years [6]. In accordance with FAOSTAT statistics on world tea production and yield quantity, from 1994 to 2020, the tea area harvested increased from 2.28 million hectares to 5.32 million hectares, and production increased from 2.88 million tons to 72 million tons [9]. The development of the tea industry has an important impact on the agricultural development of tea-producing countries [10].
Although the development of tea production and the tea economy has many advantages for tea-producing countries, treating tea waste in processing has become a problem that cannot be ignored [11]. Tea waste can be divided into two categories according to production and processing methods [12]. The first category is picking up tea stems during processing. The tea stem makes up about 20% of the total weight of tea [6,12]. The other is the tea residue discharged from the tea beverage factory after processing [13].
In the past, manufacturers used in-situ incineration to treat tea dregs [14]. As people’s understanding of tea dregs has improved in recent years, the treatment methods have also changed [14]. The processing method of tea stems is to collect the tea stems in bags and use them to absorb peculiar smells instead of activated carbon [6]. People can also place it in a new car or newly renovated room to remove odors [6]. Tea dregs treatment is more difficult than the stem of tea [3].
In 2012, Japan’s famous tea beverage company “ITOEN” produced 51,000 tons of tea residue from tea beverage processing [6]. The residue was processed into compost with around 65%, 17% heat recovery, and the rest was used as feed or additive [6]. Although various studies on tea waste have had several results, most have focused on one type of tea waste [15]. They do not provide effective and systematic solutions. Tea residue and tea stems differ from each other as waste [16]. In another way, the pyrolysis carbon from green tea leaves is a potential candidate for use as a high-performance Lithium-Ion Battery [LIB] anode material [16].
In 100 g of green tea, the water-soluble content is 9.07 g phenolic and 28.16 mg ascorbate [17]. At dried weight, the green tea chemical contains 15–20% proteins, 5–7% carbohydrates, 5% minerals and trace elements, and 1–4% amino acids. In recent years, many medical and scientific studies have shown that green tea has antioxidant effect, antiviral, antibacterial, antimutagenic, chemopreventive effects, and antiproliferative [18,19,20]. Commercial tea comprises 3–6% caffeine and 25–40% polyphenols containing flavanols, flavonols, flavanones, and phenolic acids [19,20,21,22]. Tea flavonoids can protect against different types of cancer [19,21].
Tea residue is well of in polysaccharides [including cellulose and hemicellulose], lignin, pigments, theanine, polyphenols, caffeine, polyphenols, tea saponin, and vitamins [19,21]. Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer on earth, with productivity reaching ten tones/year shows myriad potential applications in the energy sector, advanced material, medical and personal care field, environment issues, and food industry sector [23,24]. Cellulose is responsible for reinforcing the wood cell wall and protecting the organelle of the wood cell [25]. Due to its complex structure in wood cell walls interlinked with lignocellulose components, it is challenging to obtain pure, high-purity cellulose [26]. Recently, studies have focused on the extraction of cellulose in nano-dimension structure, which further categorizes the cellulose into several nomenclatures such as cellulose nanofibrils (CNF), cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), and micro fibrillated cellulose (MFC). Those variations depend on the methods used to isolate the cellulose [27].
Food side streams, or food byproducts, are already established as a source of natural ingredients. Some ingredients, such as palm kernel oil, are widely used in cosmetic and personal care products. There is greater demand for such raw materials because of the growing consumer demand for natural and organic personal care products. Sustainability is another major driver, with cosmetic and ingredient firms making pledges to use more plant-based/natural ingredients in their formulations. Therefore, the properties and performance of tea waste still need to be proved by experiments. We focused on using green tea waste as a meaningful resource by developing green tea waste fiber with a nanoparticle-making process by carboxyl pretreatment and nano-processing with a grinder and high-pressure homogenizer as skincare ingredients and rheology enhancers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The material used for pretreatment of the degree of substitutions (DS) is dried green tea waste (GTW) from Hannam tea field, Tea Museum (Seokwang Dawon Entrance, 1235-3, Seokwang-ri, Andeok-myeon, Seogwipo City, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province) Jeju Island, Republic of Korea, preparation chemicals were: acetone (CH3COCH3) from Burdick & Jackson by SK Chemicals, Seongnam, Republic of Korea; ethanol (CH3CH2OH) from Samchun Pure Chemical Co., Ltd., Pyeongtaek, Republic of Korea; sodium hydroxide (NaOH) from OCI Company Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea; sulfuric acid (H2SO4) from Samchun Pure Chemical Co., Ltd., Pyeongtaek, Republic of Korea; deuterium oxide (D2O) from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., St. Louis, MO, USA; monochloroacetic acid (MCA) from Denak Co., Ltd., Chiyoda, Japan.

2.2. Preparation of CNF DS Green Tea Waste

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) from GTW were prepared using various DS, as shown in Table 1. A total of 200 mL of ethanol was dissolved with NaOH until homogeneous. We added 100 g of dried green tea to the solution, then put it in the incubator at the condition of 30 °C and 200 rpm for 2 h. A total of 10 mL of ethanol was dissolved with MCA and added to the mixture, then placed in a shaking incubator (250 rpm and 30 °C) for 1 h. The reaction was carried out at 75 °C for 2 h in the oven. The mixture was then washed and filtered repeatedly using distilled water until it reached a neutral pH. The cellulose fiber was then dried in the oven and ground until smooth.
Dried cellulose fiber was added to distilled water and mixed for 10 min at 6500 rpm using homogenizer IKA T25 Digital Ultra Turrax, Wertheim am Main, Germany. The cellulose fibers were then DS GTW made from fiber suspension through a GEA high-pressure homogenizer (Panda PLUS 2000, GEA, Parma, Italy). First, the fiber suspension with a 2% (w/w) was pulverized twice. Then, to obtain DS GTW 2% for further experiments, the fiber suspension was passed fourth to fifth at a pressure of 400–600 bar.

2.3. Analysis of Chemical Composition

2.3.1. Extractives Content

Dried GTW leaves were weighed to 3 g, then added to 50 mL of acetone and left overnight. We separated the liquid extract and the residue and placed the liquid extract in a fume hood until it evaporated completely after being weighed. Before being extracted, the material was dried in an oven at 50 °C. Dried GTW leaves were weighed at 1.5 g after acetone extraction, then 100 mL of distilled water was added and then heated at 100 °C for 1 h. It was filtered while hot and weighed after it dried [28].

2.3.2. Carbohydrate Content

Dried GTW leaves after extractives extraction weighed at 0.02 g, then were added to 0.6 mL 72% H2SO4 and placed in an incubator at 30 °C for 1 h. After that, 3 mL of deuterium was added and then put in the oven at 100 °C for 1 h. After cooling down and then filtering, the extractives were inserted into the NMR tube and processed using Bruker Avance 500 MHz 1 H (Ettlingen, Germany) [29]. The carbohydrate composition data were calculated based on the average of three replicates for each sample.

2.3.3. Lignin Content

After extractives extraction, the dried GTW leaves weighed 0.275 g, were added to 4.5 mL 72% H2SO4, and put in an incubator at 30 °C for 1 h. After that, 150 mL of distilled water was added and placed in an autoclave at 120 °C for 1 h. After cooling down overnight, it was then filtered with hot water using a P4 filter, dried in an oven at 80 °C overnight, then put in a desiccator for 1 h and weighed [28]. The lignin data were calculated based on the average of three replicates for each sample.

2.3.4. Protein Content

The CHNS analyzer (element analyzer, organic element analyzer Vario MICRO cube) (Alpha Resources, Stevensville, MI, USA) was used to determine the protein content of dried GTW leaves after extractives extraction. The result of the device shows the percentage of each element in green tea, namely the content of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur. After that, the nitrogen content was used to quantify the percentage of protein content in dried green tea waste leaves using a factor used to multiply the nitrogen percentage given by the device, 6.25 [30].

2.4. Zeta Potential Measurement

DS GTW and original GTW samples for zeta potential were prepared by diluting the sample with distilled water to a concentration of 0.02%, then carried out at 25 °C by Zetasizer Nano ZS (Malvern, Worcestershire, UK) [31]. The zeta potential data were calculated based on the average of three repeated trials for each sample.

2.5. Water Retention Value (WRV)

The WRV of the samples was determined through centrifugation at 3000G for 30 min using a type: H-103N centrifuge, a product of Kokusan Enshinki Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan. The DS GTW weighed 5 g and was put in a P4 (10–16 µm) filter glass covered with a tea bag filter inside. After centrifugation, the leftover sample was removed and weighed to determine the weight of centrifuged DS GTW. The samples were dried in an oven at 80 °C and left overnight [32]. The WRV was calculated using the equation below.
WRV   % = wet   sample   g − dry   sample   g dry   sample   g × 100

2.6. Nanoparticles Analysis

DS GTW for nanoparticle analysis was prepared by diluting the CNF with distilled water to a concentration of 0.02% and then processed by zeta sizer Nano ZS at 25 °C [31]. For each sample, nano-size data were calculated based on the average of three experiment repetitions.

2.7. Rheological Properties of Green Tea

A rheometer (MCR 102; Anton Paar, Graz, Austria) was used to determine the rheological properties of DS green tea waste gels. We used parallel 25 mm diameter plates and set the gap between the two plates to 1 mm. The measurement was performed at 25 °C. The sample was measured three times, and then the average was calculated as data. The viscosity of the sample was measured at a shear rate of 1 s−1 to 100 s−1. The strain sweep was used to determine the linear viscoelastic (LVE) region, with a frequency of 10 rad/s and a strain range of 0.01% to 100%. The flow point (strain γf) was evaluated where the storage modulus equaled the loss modulus (G′ = G″) [33].

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Chemical Composition

3.1.1. Overall Chemical Composition of Green Tea Residuals

In dried green tea (Camelia sinensis) waste leaves from Jeju Island, the hydrophobic extract content of acetone extraction is 0.73%, and the hydrophilic extract content of hot water extraction is 11.6% (Table 2). Meanwhile, the fresh malu creeper (Bauhinia vahlii) leaves extract yield has 2.1% by chloroform, 3.6% by acetone, 5.9% by methanol, and 6.3% by hot water [34]. The extract yields for fresh lion’s ear (Leonotis leonorus) leave (w/w) were 2.4% by acetone, 7.5% by methanol, and 8.6% by water [35]. The fresh malu creeper leaves have the highest acetone extraction content (3.6%) [34], and the green tea waste leaves have the highest hot water extraction content (11.6%). Green tea waste from Turkey has extract yields 31.38% by hot water [36].
From the analysis of the chemical composition of green tea waste, it is found that green tea waste contains 21.4% lignin, 27.37% protein, and 38.9% polysaccharide (Table 1). Green tea residual from Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, by microwave heating at 200–230 °C has 36.7% neutral carbohydrate and 30.8% lignin [37]. Meanwhile, green tea residue from China contains 31% carbohydrates, 27% protein, 17% lignin, 8% polyphenols, 7% water, 6% ash, and 5% lipid [17]. Green tea GTW from Jeju Island has the highest carbohydrate content (38.9%) and protein (27.37%), while green tea residue from Japan has the most lignin content [30.8%] [37]. Tea leaf waste fiber from Malaysia has 16.2% cellulose, 68.2% hemicellulose, and 18.8% lignin [38]. Green tea from Spain contains moisture 30.46%, protein 12.27%, ash 7.35%, carbohydrate 39.13%, minerals 24.1%, formic acid 2.23%, and acetic acid 1.93% [39].

3.1.2. Carbohydrate Compositional Analysis of Green Tea Residual

Based on Monosaccharide Composition

The monosaccharide components in the GTW after hot water extraction were characterized using 1H NMR and are shown in Figure 1. It has glucuronic acid 6.08%, rhamnose 3.34%, glucose 16.26%, xylose 3.7%, galactose 4.98%, arabinose 3.08%, and mannose 2.3%. Monosaccharide composition was measured and calculated by 1H-NMR spectroscopy with different chemical shifts in anomeric hydrogen at 4.4–5.5 ppm region with an integrated peak area. However, green tea residue from Damin Company, Fujian Province, China, has galacturonic acid 7.6%, rhamnose 0.8%, glucose 13.4%, xylose 2.1%, galactose 3.4%, arabinose 2.8%, mannose 1.1%, and fucose 0.4% [17]. Green tea waste from Spain contains glucose 18.57%, xylose 5.08%, galactose 6.96%, mannose 3.43%, rhamnose 1.98%, arabinose 2.7%, fucose 0.4% [39].

Based on Polysaccharide Contents

GTW after hot water extraction as polysaccharide relative compositional analysis has glucuronic acid 15.63%, rhamnose 8.37%, glucose 40.76%, xylose 9.29%, galactose 12.48%, arabinose 7.73%, and mannose 5.75%. However, the results obtained by Tsubaki et al., green tea residue after microwave heating at 110 °C was rhamnose 3.4%, glucose 49.9%, xylose 16.1%, galactose 14.2%, arabinose 13.6%, mannose 2.8% [37]. Tea residue from Jiangxi Jinggangshan Co., Ltd. (Jiangxi, China), has glucuronic acid 35.02%, galactose 19.63%, arabinose 16.83%, glucose 9.93%, fucose 5.16%, fructose 4.13%, rhamnose 3.28%, galacturonic acid 1.96%, xylose 1.6%, and mannose 0.75% [40].

3.2. Zeta Potential for Pretreatment Confirmation

Zeta potential is related to surface charge density to determine the carboxyl group content in each CNF. As shown in Figure 2, the zeta potential of green tea waste DS 0 is −26.6 mV; green tea waste already has a high negative charge because of glucuronic acid. CNF DS 0.3 and DS 0.4 have zeta potentials were −32.9 mV and −38.4 mV. Meanwhile, CNF of dried hardwood kraft pulp with TEMPO-oxidized addition of 0.7 mM, 1 mM, and 3 mM NaClO were −28.6 mV, −38.8 mV, and −51.9 mV [31]. The addition of 7 mL of NaClO on CNF from dried hardwood bleached kraft pulp has −48 mV [33].
CNF from bleached kraft hardwood (HW) pulp from Canada with the TEMPO oxidation method and the aqueous counter collision (ACC) method have zeta potential values for original CNF containing 115.2 carboxylate content (μeq g/g) −52.81 mV, homogeneous CNF contain 115.2 carboxylate content (μeq g/g) −52.56 mV, supernatant contains 110.7 carboxylate content (μeq g/g) −40.45 mV, and precipitate contain 110.7 carboxylate content (μeq g/g) −43.86 mV [41]. Zeta potential is responsible for examination of the stability of nanomaterials dispersion in their dispersive media [41,42]. However, zeta potential cannot be considered a quantitative measure of surface charge density but only a relative assessment of colloid stability [41]. In general, suspensions in water with zeta potential values the same or more than 30 mV were stable [31,41].

3.3. Size of CNF with Nano Process

Green tea waste DS 0.4 was the smallest particle, then DS 0.3 and DS 0 were the largest particles; as shown in Table 3, more levels of carboxyl groups make the CNF size smaller. The same thing was also reported by Plappert et al., 2017, nanofibrillated 2,3-dicarboxyl cellulose (nf-DCC) from hardwood pulp containing 0.78, 1.74, and 2 COOH (mmol/g) diameters were 2.47 nm, 2.68 nm, and 2.72 nm, and length was of 375.1 nm, 127.3 nm, and 95.8 nm [43]. CNF HW pulp from Canada has 6.6 nm width and 3000 nm length for the original CNF then, after centrifugal fractionation, the ranges reduced by 62% of width and 70% length were 2.5 nm and 900 nm [41].

3.4. Characterization of CNF as Cosmetic Raw Materials

3.4.1. As Humectant

After being treated by DS on green tea waste, the water retention value (WRV) increased, that shown in Figure 3. The results show that the final amount of water removed in the green tea waste CNF treated has different effects with GTW DS 0 that do not have any pretreatment. The highest water retention rate in CNF DS 0.3 shows that at the same time and speed, the percentage of water in the sample after centrifugation is much higher than in other formulations.
The mixture of sodium alginate (SA) and TEMPO-mediated oxidation of micro fibrillated cellulose (OMFC) from the cotton fiber was obtained from Whatman filter paper in ratios of 10/90, 20/80, and 30/70, and its WRV (%) is 734.6 ± 17.1, 808.1 ± 14.3, 846.7 ± 19. [44], which has a higher WRV than green tea waste DS. Microcrystalline cellulose and homogeneous cellulose WRV purchased from MikroTechnik GmbH (C200) (Bürgstadt (Miltenberg), Bavaria-Germany) increased significantly with the applied pressure and the degree of homogenization. The results also show that high treatment intensity (pressure: 500 b and homogeneity higher than 12.9) has a more significant effect on the increase in WRV (275% for C200 (50/12.9) and 330% for C200 (50/32.1)). These increases in WRV indicate that, based on the microscopic observations achieved, the increase in specific surface area is combined with the swelling caused by cellulose hydration [45]. However, hyaluronic acid (HA) with MW = 1000 kDa, Rg = 125 nm exhibits a relative water retention capacity retaining >30% of its initial water content after HA was hydrated in 82% relative humidity at 37 °C for ten days prior to desiccation conditions [46].

3.4.2. AS Rheology Modifiers

Figure 4 shows the viscosity of different concentrations of CNF DS green tea waste as a function of shear rate. All GTW DS samples showed shear thinning behavior. The addition of carboxyl groups makes the viscosity of CNF green tea waste gradually increase from 168.9 mPa·s of DS 0 to 12,414 mPa·s of DS 0.4. Meanwhile, the viscosity of CNF DS 0.4 of hardwood pulp was 16,167 mPa.s [33], much higher than CNF from green tea waste in the same DS was 12,514 mPa.s (Figure 5). According to Kruger et al., 0.4 mL of 0.6% (w/v) CNF hydrogel has almost 255,000 mPa.s [46]. The highest viscosity is CNF hydrogel (255,000 mPa.s) > CNF DS 0.4 of hardwood pulp (16,167 mPa.s) > CNF green tea waste DS 0.4 (12,514 mPa.s). Interestingly, it is recommended that higher concentrations of cations have a strong shielding effect on CNF gels, and these studies strongly influence the viscosity of CNF gels. HA at low concentrations, leading to high viscosities—a 1% w/w HA solution has a viscosity comparable to that of a jelly (almost 106 Pa.s) [46].
Similar to what was observed for viscosity, adding carboxyl groups increases the storage and loss modulus of the CNF GTW gels (Figure 6a–c). The effect of ionic strength on the storage and loss modulus of 2% CNF GTW caused by adding MCA is shown in Figure 6b,c. The G′ value increased from 202.51 to 228.85 Pa as the concentration increased from 2.17 to 2.89 g MCA, confirming that a stronger network of CNF gel is created at 2.89 g MCA. Meanwhile, CNF GTW DS 0 (Figure 6a) without added MCA has a really low storage and loss modulus.
The viscosity of CNF DS 0.4 of hardwood pulp was 256.72 Pa, much higher than CNF from green tea waste DS 0.4 was 227.73 Pa, but all DS from CNF from green tea waste was higher from 0.4 mL of 0.6% (w/v) CNF hydrogel that only has 84.1 Pa. The highest storage modulus is CNF DS 0.4 of hardwood pulp (256.72 Pa) > CNF DS 0.4 of green tea waste (228.85 Pa) > 0.4 mL of 0.6% (w/v) CNF hydrogel (84.1 Pa) [31,46,47]. However, the treated green tea waste had a significantly higher storage modulus G′ than the untreated sample with a frequency of 0.1 s−1. For treated green tea waste, the G′ and G″ values were almost equal for all strains around 200–230 Pa.

4. Conclusions

The composition of GTW was hydrophobic (0.73%), hydrophilic (11.6%), lignin (21.4%), protein (27.3%), and carbohydrate (38.9%), glucuronic acid (GA), and galactose that is suitable for skincare ingredients. GTW can be used as nanoparticles by carboxymethylation treatment with various degrees of substitution (DS 0.3, DS 0.4). The addition of carboxymethylation significantly increased the zeta potential, WRV, viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus of the gels. A nanomaterials dispersion in their dispersive media is stable that has a zeta potential value above 30 mV, and GTW has −32.9 mV until −38.4 mV. GTW, after being treated, has a high WRV that is used for humectants in cosmetic ingredients but, unfortunately, is unsuitable as a rheology enhancer. These structural differences result in physical properties complementing existing ingredients such as HA.

Author Contributions

Investigation, A.Z. and S.-K.L.; validation, S.-K.L.; writing—original draft, A.Z. and S.-J.S.; writing—review and editing, I.-J.Y. and S.-J.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

This research received no data availability statement.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Sinija, V.R.; Mishra, H.N. Green tea: Health benefits. J. Nutr. Environ. Med. 2008, 17, 232–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Rezvani, G.; Taleghani, F.; Valizadeh, M. Effect of Green Tea on the Level of Salivary Interleukin-1 Beta in Patients with Chronic Periodontitis: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Int. J. Dent. 2022, 2022, 8992313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Namita, P.; Mukesh, R.; Vijay, K.J. Camellia sinensis (green tea): A review. Glob. J. Pharmacol. 2012, 6, 52–59. [Google Scholar]
  4. Swarnalatha, G.; Nath, B.S.; Naik, N.L.; Amaladhas, P.H.; Emerald, F.M.E. Therapeutic Potential of Green Tea Catechins-A Magical Herb. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 2021, 10, 3560–3571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Cabrera, C.; Artacho, R.; Giménez, R. Beneficial effects of green tea—A review. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 2006, 25, 79–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Gao, P.; Ogata, Y. CHAMU: An effective approach for improving the recycling of tea waste. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Optoelectronic Science and Materials, Hefei, China, 20–22 September 2019; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2020; Volume 711, p. 012024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Mangla, S.K.; Kazançoğlu, Y.; Yıldızbaşı, A.; Öztürk, C.; Çalık, A. A conceptual framework for blockchain-based sustainable supply chain and evaluating implementation barriers: A case of the tea supply chain. Bus. Strategy Environ. 2022, 31, 3693–3716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Lei, L. Effects of Standards on Tea Exports from Developing Countries: Comparison of China and Sri Lanka; Discussion Paper; Institute of Developing Economies (IDE): Chiba, Japan, 2017; p. 642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; FAOSTAT. Data Corps and Livestock Products. Available online: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize (accessed on 10 June 2022).
  10. Gunathilaka, R.D.; Tularam, G.A. The tea industry and a review of its price modelling in major tea producing countries. J. Manag. Strategy 2016, 7, 34–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Van der Wal, S. Sustainability Issues in the Tea Sector: A Comparative Analysis of Six Leading Producing Countries. Stichting Onderzoek Multinationale Ondernemingen, June 2008. Available online: https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=880092106083027019125017094101100029101082025061065066002119008127025082117096018086017003032014014000038095097023065108119094019023009076035067098106080120001092076059017020070115006093095124115099011005088091027103098092027081031101072016022028001009&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE (accessed on 24 May 2022).
  12. Demir, I. An investigation on the production of construction brick with processed waste tea. Build. Environ. 2006, 41, 1274–1278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Abd El-Aty, A.M.; Choi, J.H.; Rahman, M.M.; Kim, S.W.; Tosun, A.; Shim, J.H. Residues and contaminants in tea and tea infusions: A review. Food Addit. Contam. Part A 2014, 31, 1794–1804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Xu, R. Progress in nanoparticles characterization: Sizing and zeta potential measurement. Particuology 2008, 6, 112–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Elbasiouny, H.; Darwesh, M.; Elbeltagy, H.; Abo-Alhamd, F.G.; Amer, A.A.; Elsegaiy, M.A.; Brevik, E.C. Ecofriendly remediation technologies fo wastewater contaminated with heavy metals with special focus on using water hyacinth and black tea wastes: A review. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2021, 193, 449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Han, S.W.; Jung, D.W.; Jeong, J.H.; Oh, E.S. Effect of pyrolysis temperature on carbon obtained from green tea biomass for superior lithium ion battery anodes. Chem. Eng. J. 2014, 254, 597–604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Zhang, C.; Sanders, J.P.; Xiao, T.T.; Bruins, M.E. How does alkali aid protein extraction in green tea leaf residue: A basis for integrated biorefinery of leaves. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0133046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Schramm, L. Going green: The role of the green tea component EGCG in chemoprevention. J. Carcinog. Mutagen. 2013, 4, 1000142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  19. Suzuki, Y.; Miyoshi, N.; Isemura, M. Health-promoting effects of green tea. Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B 2012, 88, 88–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Pastoriza, S.; Mesías, M.; Cabrera, C.; Rufián-Henares, J.A. Healthy properties of green and white teas: An update. Food Funct. 2017, 8, 2650–2662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Jayakeerthana, S. Benefits of Green Tea: A Review. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 2016, 8, 1184. Available online: https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/benefits-green-tea-revie/docview/1862636004/se-2?accountid=15638 (accessed on 10 March 2022).
  22. Graham, H.N. Green tea composition, consumption, and polyphenol chemistry. Prev. Med. 1992, 21, 334–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Saxena, I.M.; Brown, R.M., Jr. Biosynthesis of cellulose. Prog. Biotechnol. 2001, 18, 69–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Brigham, C. Biopolymers: Biodegradable alternatives to traditional plastics. In Green Chemistry; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 753–770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Watanabe, Y.; Meents, M.J.; McDonnell, L.M.; Barkwill, S.; Sampathkumar, A.; Cartwright, H.N.; Mansfield, S.D. Visualization of cellulose synthases in Arabidopsis secondary cell walls. Science 2015, 350, 198–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Zhao, X.; Li, S.; Wu, R.; Liu, D. Organosolv fractionating pre-treatment of lignocellulosic biomass for efficient enzymatic saccharification: Chemistry, kinetics, and substrate structures. Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. 2017, 11, 567–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Pennells, J.; Godwin, I.D.; Amiralian, N.; Martin, D.J. Trends in the production of cellulose nanofibers from non-wood sources. Cellulose 2020, 27, 575–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Rahmini, R.; Yoon, S.G.; Yeon, I.J.; Sung, Y.J.; Shin, S.J. Kraft pulping using red pine (Pinus densiflora) root biomass. J. Korea TAPPI 2019, 51, 91–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Shin, S.J.; Cho, N.S. Conversion factors for carbohydrate analysis by hydrolysis and 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Cellulose 2008, 15, 255–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Hames, B.; Scarlata, C.; Sluiter, A. Determination of Protein Content in Biomass; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO, USA, 2008; pp. 1–5. [Google Scholar]
  31. Masruchin, N.; Amanda, P.; Kusumaningrum, W.B.; Suryanegara, L.; Nuryawan, A. Particle size distribution and yield analysis of different charged cellulose nanofibrils obtained by TEMPO-mediated oxidation. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere, Bogor, Indonesia, 28–29 October 2019; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2020; Volume 572, p. 012045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Song, W.Y.; Jeong, S.B.; Juhn, S.Y.; Shin, S.J. Fibrillation characteristics of cellulose nanofibrils with water retention value method. J. Korea TAPPI 2019, 51, 128–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Rahmini; Juhn, S.; Lee, K.H.; Shin, S.J. Impact of Electrolytes on the Rheology of TEMPO-oxidized Cellulose Nanofibril. J. Korea TAPPI 2020, 52, 5–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Sowndhararajan, K.; Kang, S.C. Free radical scavenging activity from different extracts of leaves of Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2013, 20, 319–325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Jimoh, F.O.; Adedapo, A.A.; Afolayan, A.J. Comparison of the nutritional value and biological activities of the acetone, methanol and water extracts of the leaves of Solanum nigrum and Leonotis leonorus. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 964–971. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Tutuş, A.; Kazaskeroğlu, Y.; Çiçekler, M. Evaluation of tea wastes in usage pulp and paper production. BioRes 2015, 10, 5407–5416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Tsubaki, S.; Iida, H.; Sakamoto, M.; Azuma, J.I. Microwave heating of tea residue yields polysaccharides, polyphenols, and plant biopolyester. J. Agric. Food Chemistry. 2008, 56, 11293–11299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Abdul Rahman, N.H.; Chieng, B.W.; Ibrahim, N.A.; Abdul Rahman, N. Extraction and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from tea leaf waste fibers. Polymers 2017, 9, 588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  39. Sanz, V.; Flórez-Fernández, N.; Domínguez, H.; Torres, M.D. Clean technologies applied to the recovery of bioactive extracts from Camellia sinensis leaves agricultural wastes. Food Bioprod. Process. 2020, 122, 214–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Huang, H.; Chen, J.; Chen, Y.; Xie, J.; Liu, S.; Sun, N.; Hu, X.; Yu, Q. Modification of tea residue dietary fiber by high-temperature cooking assisted enzymatic method: Structural, physicochemical and functional properties. LWT 2021, 145, 111314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Zhai, L.; Kim, H.C.; Kim, J.W.; Kim, J. Simple centrifugal fractionation to reduce the size distribution of cellulose nanofibers. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 11744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Hasanin, M.S.; Mostafa, A.M.; Mwafy, E.A.; Darwesh, O.M. Eco-friendly cellulose nano fibers via first reported Egyptian Humicola fuscoatra Egyptia X4: Isolation and characterization. Environ. Nanotechnol. Monit. Manag. 2018, 10, 409–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Plappert, S.F.; Nedelec, J.M.; Rennhofer, H.; Lichtenegger, H.C.; Liebner, F.W. Strain hardening and pore size harmonization by uniaxial densification: A facile approach toward superinsulating aerogels from nematic nanofibrillated 2, 3-dicarboxyl cellulose. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29, 6630–6641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Lin, N.; Bruzzese, C.; Dufresne, A. TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose participating as crosslinking aid for alginate-based sponges. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 4, 4948–4959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Jacquet, N.; Vanderghem, C.; Danthine, S.; Blecker, C.; Paquot, M. Influence of homogenization treatment on physicochemical properties and enzymatic hydrolysis rate of pure cellulose fibers. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2013, 169, 1315–1328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Krüger, M.; Oosterhoff, L.A.; van Wolferen, M.E.; Schiele, S.A.; Walther, A.; Geijsen, N.; Spee, B. Cellulose nanofibril hydrogel promotes hepatic differentiation of human liver organoids. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 2020, 9, 1901658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  47. Xu, C.; Cai, Y.; Zhang, J.; Fukasawa, M.; Moriya, N. Ensiling and subsequent ruminal degradation characteristics of barley tea grounds treated with contrasting additives. Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol. 2008, 141, 368–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Applsci 12 12871 g001 550
Figure 1. 1H NMR green tea leave residue after hot water extraction. Signal: A, α-glucoronic acid; B, α-galactose; C, α-arabinose; D, α-glucose; E, α-xylose; F, α-mannose; G, α-rhamnose; H, β-mannose; I, β-rhamnose; J, β-glucoronic acid; K, β-glucose; L, β-galactose; M, β-xylose; N, β-arabinose.
Figure 1. 1H NMR green tea leave residue after hot water extraction. Signal: A, α-glucoronic acid; B, α-galactose; C, α-arabinose; D, α-glucose; E, α-xylose; F, α-mannose; G, α-rhamnose; H, β-mannose; I, β-rhamnose; J, β-glucoronic acid; K, β-glucose; L, β-galactose; M, β-xylose; N, β-arabinose.
Applsci 12 12871 g001
Applsci 12 12871 g002 550
Figure 2. Zeta potential of different DS−treated green tea waste biomass.
Figure 2. Zeta potential of different DS−treated green tea waste biomass.
Applsci 12 12871 g002
Applsci 12 12871 g003 550
Figure 3. Different water retention values from different DS−treated green waste biomass.
Figure 3. Different water retention values from different DS−treated green waste biomass.
Applsci 12 12871 g003
Applsci 12 12871 g004 550
Figure 4. Different viscosity from different DS−treated green waste biomass.
Figure 4. Different viscosity from different DS−treated green waste biomass.
Applsci 12 12871 g004
Applsci 12 12871 g005 550
Figure 5. Viscosity from green tea waste DS 0.4 and CM CNF DS 0.4.
Figure 5. Viscosity from green tea waste DS 0.4 and CM CNF DS 0.4.
Applsci 12 12871 g005
Applsci 12 12871 g006a 550Applsci 12 12871 g006b 550
Figure 6. Different storage modulus and loss modulus with shear strain change from different DS−treated green waste biomass. (a): DS 0, (b): DS 0.3, (c): DS 0.4.
Figure 6. Different storage modulus and loss modulus with shear strain change from different DS−treated green waste biomass. (a): DS 0, (b): DS 0.3, (c): DS 0.4.
Applsci 12 12871 g006aApplsci 12 12871 g006b
Table
Table 1. Information on various DS of cellulose nanofibrils from green tea waste.
Table 1. Information on various DS of cellulose nanofibrils from green tea waste.
SampleEthanol (mL)NaOH (g)MCA (g)Green Tea Waste (g)
DS 0---100
DS 0.32002.222.17100
DS 0.42002.962.89100
Table
Table 2. Chemical composition of green tea waste biomass (%).
Table 2. Chemical composition of green tea waste biomass (%).
Sample ExtractivesLigninProteinPolysaccharidePolysaccharide
Total
AcetoneHot WaterGlucuronic AcidRhamnoseGlucosexyLoseGalactoseArabinoseMannose
Green tea0.73 ± 0.2011.6 ± 0.421.40 ± 0.727.37 ± 0.26.08 ± 0.013.34 ± 0.03 16.26 ± 0.093.70 ± 04.98 ± 03.08 ± 0.032.30 ± 0.0438.90
Table
Table 3. The particle size of green tea waste biomass.
Table 3. The particle size of green tea waste biomass.
Sample Width (nm)Length (nm)
DS 0591.7 ± 2.32491.7 ± 34.3
DS 0.3206.2 ± 4.11318.7 ± 55.9
DS 0.470.9 ± 7.5840.5 ± 108.2
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zahra, A.; Lim, S.-K.; Shin, S.-J.; Yeon, I.-J. Properties of Green Tea Waste as Cosmetics Ingredients and Rheology Enhancers. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12871. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412871

AMA Style

Zahra A, Lim S-K, Shin S-J, Yeon I-J. Properties of Green Tea Waste as Cosmetics Ingredients and Rheology Enhancers. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(24):12871. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412871

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zahra, Audrey, Seo-Kyoung Lim, Soo-Jeong Shin, and Ik-Jun Yeon. 2022. "Properties of Green Tea Waste as Cosmetics Ingredients and Rheology Enhancers" Applied Sciences 12, no. 24: 12871. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412871

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop