3.2. Gasification Results
The results obtained are summarized in
Table 3.
The length of tests #5 and #6 was shorter compared to the previous tests; however, the gas composition analysed online during the tests reached a steady state after around 10 min, giving stable values for the entire length of the test; a 60 min period was therefore considered sufficient for an evaluation of the results. The amounts of char and ash produced during gasification were evaluated in relation to the total amount of lignite fed during the experimental run. Consequently, the evaluation of their content was not affected by the length of the test.
From the comparison of the results obtained in the first three tests, it is possible to observe that, in general, at higher temperatures, the product gas has a higher quality in terms of the H
2O and C conversions and gas yield. Moreover, the gas composition in the tests carried out at 850 °C displays an increase in CO and decrease in CO
2, probably caused by the higher extent of steam gasification reactions that takes place for higher temperatures, and the lower extent of the WGS reaction, enhanced at lower temperatures (~600 °C). Starting from the syngas compositions obtained in the six experimental runs, the equilibrium contents of CO and CO
2 were calculated with the software Aspen Plus, in order to compare the experimental and equilibrium compositions. The equilibrium compositions calculated were approximately equal to the gas compositions obtained in the experimental tests, meaning that the WGS reaction had reached equilibrium. For higher temperatures, the char yield is also lower, which is proof of the higher conversion of carbon and thus lower amount of solid un-reacted residual char. Furthermore, the amount of tar produced at higher temperatures is lower compared to the cases with lower temperatures. In the tests conducted at 750 °C, the tar content is around 2.5 g/Nm
3, while at 850 °C, it reduces to 0.5 g/Nm
3. Regarding the tar content in general, it was observed that in tests with lignite, the amount of tar produced is lower compared to in similar tests carried out with biomass in the same experimental reactor with olivine as bed material [
27,
29,
30]. Biomass gasification tests in similar conditions carried out at 800 °C produced tar contents ≥3300 mg/Nm
3, while lignite gasification at the same temperature (test #2) produced a tar content <950 mg/Nm
3. This phenomenon could be related to the lower volatile content of lignite compared to biomass (~50% versus ~70%, respectively [
27]). In fact, volatile matter has been reported to make organic feedstocks more susceptible to tar formation [
31].
The tests with and without air injections in the freeboard were evaluated in a comparison. As expected, in the tests with air injections, there is a higher content of CO
2 in the product gas. Furthermore, in the tests with air injections, the H
2O conversion was lower, probably because, being a product of combustion, it increases during the reaction. The H
2 content and its production in terms of Nl/min are lower compared to the case without air injection. It is possible that some of the produced H
2 was consumed in the combustion reactions with the injected O
2. The difference between the H
2 produced in test #2 (without air injections) and test #5 (with air injections), and their corresponding difference in H
2O content in the syngas are both in the order of 0.1 mol/min. This supports the hypothesis that the missing H
2 in the tests with air injections has been combusted and converted into additional H
2O, as confirmed by the consistency of the reported values of molar flows. In all of the tests, the H
2S content was approximately 400 ppm on a dry N
2-free basis. The NH
3 content, favored by the presence of steam as a gasification agent [
32], was around 1000 ppm, with lower values at 850 °C. The higher NH
3 content at 800 °C, noticed both in the tests with and without air injections, was also observed by Xie at al. in gasification experiments on coal macerals [
33], and could be related to the combination of two effects: the increase of NH
3 production from the N-containing structures in coal enhanced in steam gasification with a higher temperature [
32,
34,
35], and the thermal decomposition of NH
3 occurring for increasing temperatures, as found in the literature [
36]. For tests #4, #5, and #6, in which air was injected in the freeboard, the presence of O
2 increases the possibility of NH
3 combustion and consequently decreases its content in the product gas, showing the same trend as a function of temperature.
As mentioned above, in tests #4, #5, and #6, combustion of part of the gas took place, as expected, as a consequence of the air injections, especially those performed in order to increase the temperature in the freeboard and enhance the reactions of tar decomposition. In spite of the combustion reactions, it was observed that the tar content was not really affected by the air injections. The explanation for this could be that in the bench-scale gasifier, the temperature of the reactor is controlled by the electric furnace, so the temperature increase caused by the combustion did not have a relevant effect for the promotion of the tar conversion reactions. In addition, due to the reduced dimensions of the bench-scale reactor, the air injections in the freeboard are close to the exit of the gasifier, and consequently, tars could have had too little residence time to decompose. Moreover, the high content of inert N2 in the air injected, which dilutes the O2, could be the cause of the attenuation of the temperature increase due to the combustion, thus reducing the beneficial effect of the air injections.
A global mass balance was carried out, taking into account the mass flows of lignite and steam as inputs for the duration of the test. The outputs were calculated as the sum of the masses of the gases produced, the liquid water condensed downstream of the reactor, the tar contents in the samples (reported as the total gas flow), the ash content separated and collected from the bed material after the tests, and the char and residual carbon in the reactor (including the carbon particles deposited on the surface of the filter candle), which were evaluated from the post-combustion carried out after each test.
3.4. Pressure Fluctuation Analysis
More than 150 acquisitions of pressure fluctuation signals were performed during the six tests discussed above, always depicting the situation exemplified by
Figure 7 for test #1. During the preliminary heating of the reactor, under an N
2 flowrate high enough to fluidize the bed, PSDF resulted in dominant frequencies of around 3–4 Hz (
Figure 7a), which were compatible with the desired bubbling fluidization regime (usually less than 10 Hz) [
24] and were assumed to be characteristic of the fresh olivine bed inventory. As soon as the gasification session started, a series of low-frequency phenomena (<1 Hz) took action with a high power spectral density, partially disguising those related to bed bubbles in the PSDF; the latter were still detectable, maintaining their dominant characteristic frequencies at 3–4 Hz (
Figure 7b). The low-frequency phenomena were associated with the peristaltic pump feeding water and the instantaneous devolatilization of lignite particles. As further confirmation of this last observation, pressure fluctuation signals were also acquired during post-combustion, when water and lignite were no longer fed. In related PSDF, dominant frequencies clearly reappeared within the range of 3–4 Hz, without any high power spectral density disturbance at less than 1 Hz (
Figure 7c).
For the case shown in
Figure 7, standard deviations of pressure fluctuation signals were 0.98 mbar for preliminary heating (
Figure 7a), 3.14 mbar during gasification (
Figure 7b), and 0.39 mbar for post-combustion (
Figure 7c), with trends and orders of magnitude representative of all tests. The fresh olivine beds during preliminary heating, approaching temperatures of the gasification, had pressure fluctuations with a standard deviation of around 1 mbar. It increased several times during gasification (because of the powerful low-frequency phenomena mentioned above), and then returned to the order of 1 mbar in the post-combustion phase.
All these observations allowed us to conclude that, for the investigated process conditions, the olivine bed inventory did not undergo modifications able to modify its fluidization quality, as sintering between olivine particles or due to lignite and ashes. This would have caused an increase of the average particle diameter and then a drop in the fluidization quality, detectable by PSDF modifications. SEM analyses confirmed the absence of particle sintering or agglomeration.
Figure 8 shows an SEM image of olivine after the test, in which it is possible to see that the dimensions of the particles are approximately between 200 and 400 μm, similar to the particle size of olivine before the test. No sign of agglomeration or particle sintering is observed from the SEM images. In the tests carried out in this work, the absence of agglomeration issues was probably proof of the suitability of the operating temperatures chosen, which were lower than the ash melting point. Furthermore, fluidized-bed technology has the well-known advantage of guaranteeing a good mixing of the materials and thus a uniform distribution of temperatures across the reactor volume, avoiding the presence of hot spots that could be responsible for ash melting.
The evaluation of the agglomerate formation for longer operational times, and therefore with an increased ash content due to accumulation, was not taken into account, because the tests carried out in this work aimed to reproduce the operation of the HTW gasifier, in which the ash produced during the process is discharged from the bottom of the reactor [
43], and consequently, the accumulation of high contents of ash does not take place.