Next Article in Journal
Pressure–Volume Curve during Capnoperitoneum in Cats
Next Article in Special Issue
Great Himalayan Leaf-Nosed Bats Produce Different Territorial Calls to Respond to Sympatric Species and Non-Living Objects
Previous Article in Journal
Overview of Quantitative Methodologies to Understand Antimicrobial Resistance via Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Animals
Volume 10
Issue 8
10.3390/ani10081406
animals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Clustering Taxa through Vocalizations in a Neotropical Passerine (Rough-Legged Tyrannulet, Phyllomyias burmeisteri)

by
Ronald M. Parra-Hernández
1,2,*,
Jorge I. Posada-Quintero
3,4,
Orlando Acevedo-Charry
5,6 and
Hugo F. Posada-Quintero
7,*
1
Institución Educativa Normal Superior Fabio Lozano Torrijos, Falan, Tolima 732001, Colombia
2
Asociación Tolimense de Ornitología, Ibagué, Tolima 730005, Colombia
3
Institución Educativa Técnica María Auxiliadora, Fresno, Tolima 731560, Colombia
4
Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación y la Comunicación, Universidad Autónoma de Asunción, Asunción 001013, Paraguay
5
Colección de Sonidos Ambientales, Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Claustro de San Agustín, Villa de Leyva, Boyacá 154001, Colombia
6
Asociación Colombiana de Ornitología, Bogotá, DC 111311, Colombia
7
Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Animals 2020, 10(8), 1406; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081406
Submission received: 6 July 2020 / Revised: 6 August 2020 / Accepted: 8 August 2020 / Published: 12 August 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Bioacoustics)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

Recognizing the different species can help us better understand the nature. One way to differentiate bird species is the bird song. There are mathematical techniques that extract information from the bird songs, potentially allowing automatic differentiation of species. However, there is still a lack of techniques that use the extracted information and accurately differentiate individuals of different species. For the first time, we have used a technique called Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) to identify the two taxonomic groups of a bird named Rough-legged Tyrannulet Phyllomyias burmeisteri, which is a species that can be found all the way from Costa Rica to Argentina. Although there is evidence of the existence of two taxonomic groups, previous studies have shown them to be difficult to distinguish. We collected Rough-legged Tyrannulet bird songs of 101 birds from 11 countries. UMAP allowed us to make a transformation of the multiple measures obtained from the bird song of each bird into just two values. Plotting the UMAP values of each bird in a two-dimensional graph, it turns out that UMAP was able to clearly identify the two taxonomic groups, which has been named as Rough-legged Tyrannulet Phyllomyias burmeisteri and White-fronted Tyrannulet Phyllomyias zeledoni. UMAP can potentially help the identification of other species difficult to classify.

Abstract

Vocalizations from birds are a fruitful source of information for the classification of species. However, currently used analyses are ineffective to determine the taxonomic status of some groups. To provide a clearer grouping of taxa for such bird species from the analysis of vocalizations, more sensitive techniques are required. In this study, we have evaluated the sensitivity of the Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) technique for grouping the vocalizations of individuals of the Rough-legged Tyrannulet Phyllomyias burmeisteri complex. Although the existence of two taxonomic groups has been suggested by some studies, the species has presented taxonomic difficulties in classification in previous studies. UMAP exhibited a clearer separation of groups than previously used dimensionality-reduction techniques (i.e., principal component analysis), as it was able to effectively identify the two taxa groups. The results achieved with UMAP in this study suggest that the technique can be useful in the analysis of species with complex in taxonomy through vocalizations data as a complementary tool including behavioral traits such as acoustic communication.

1. Introduction

Differentiating species is particularly challenging for taxa of birds in families that exhibit similar plumages and vocalizations, such is the case of the wrens (Troglodytidae) [1,2], tapaculos (Rhinocryptidae) [3,4,5], antbirds (Thamnophilidae) [6] and New World flycatchers (Tyrannidae) [7]. An interesting case is the Rough-legged Tyrannulet (Phyllomyias burmeisteri). Although the existence of two groups has been suggested [8,9], the species has presented taxonomic difficulties in classification [10]. Recently, principal component analysis (PCA) was used to group the subspecies of Rough-legged Tyrannulet complex from vocalizations [10]. The results further support the existence of two main groups; however, the study was not conclusive since an overlap between the groups existed in the PCA representation. A more sensitive analysis technique is needed to clearly separate both groups.
Several statistical techniques have been proposed to effectively differentiate specimens from vocalizations. Such techniques aim to provide an improved classification of bird species with inconclusive scientific evidence to determine the taxonomic status of the species that are difficult to identify [11]. With the advent of machine learning and big data analysis, novel dimensionality reduction techniques have become powerful tools for data analysis enabling a better visualization and understanding of large, high dimensional datasets [12,13]. Dimensionality reduction plays an important role in multiple-dimension data analysis, as it is a fundamental technique for visualization and data processing. Deep mathematical frameworks and engineering tools, such as dimensionality reduction, have improved the way biological studies approach diversity variation [14,15,16]. For example, many techniques are available for biological applications looking into group differentiation through vocalizations. Statistical tools include testing the difference in standardized note measures by contrast (t-Test) [6], analysis of variance (ANOVA) [17], or multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) [18]. Other statistical tools enable multidimensional analysis, such as PCA [19,20,21], discriminant analysis [3], among others [22].
Compared to other statistical tools, one of the advantages of dimensionality reduction is to allow the processing of massive data and to work a high number of dimensions, like the multiple bioacoustics measures obtainable from vocalizations. The development of novel and sensitive techniques for dimensionality reductions of quantitative variables obtained from acoustic signals would help to cluster taxa through vocalizations. Here, we have tested one of the most novel techniques for dimensionality reduction, the Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP), for detecting groups of subspecies within Rough-legged Tyrannulet.
There are several dimensionality reduction algorithms besides UMAP. The algorithms of dimensionality reduction can be divided into two categories [23]: those that preserve the distance structure within the data such as the PCA [24], multidimensional scaling [25] and Sammon mapping, and those that favor the preservation of local distances over the global distance like t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) [26], Isomap, LargeVis, Laplacia eigenmaps and diffusion maps [27]. Among the tools in the second group, the UMAP is a novel dimensionality reduction and visualization technique developed to preserve more stable and consistent structures than other methods and has shown superior performance compared to other tools (including t-SNE) [23,28,29]. UMAP constructs a high dimensional graph representation of the data and then optimizes a low-dimensional graph to be as structurally similar as possible [30].
We have aimed to evaluate the feasibility of UMAP for grouping subspecies from the analysis of vocalizations. To test the sensitivity of the technique, we have run UMAP analysis of a diverse (from Costa Rica to Argentina) set of samples of a Passerine bird vocalization. Our species model includes a complex taxonomy [11], but vocalizations could support its taxonomic treatments [10]. Thus, this article evaluates the suitability of UMAP for the separation of population groups, allowing a more meaningful visualization of the data, which can lead to a more conclusive separation of taxa.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Species Model

Rough-legged Tyrannulet (Phyllomyias burmeisteri [sensu lato]) comprises a complex group of subspecies that are distributed in 6 zones of Central and South America (Figure 1): (1) zeledoni; Costa Rica (CR) and Panama (PA); (2) wetmorei; Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and Sierra de Perijá, Colombia (CO)-Venezuela (VE) border; (3) viridiceps; northern mountains of VE; (4) bunites; the Pantepuis of VE; (5) leucogonys; along the Andes from CO to the south up to southeast of Peru (PE), through Ecuador (EC); (6) burmeisteri; with two isolated population in central Andean rainforest or Yungas at eastern Andes of Bolivia (BO) and northern Argentina (AR), and the Atlantic Forest in southeast and south of Brazil (BR), southeast of Paraguay (PY), Uruguay (UY), and the extreme northeast of Argentina (AR) [31].
This species has presented taxonomic difficulties in classification [10]. Rough-legged Tyrannulet sometimes is treated as two different species: White-fronted Tyrannulet P. zeledoni (sensu lato) (joining subspecies 1 to 5, see above) and P. burmeisteri (sensu strictu) (subspecies 6, above). Such separation has been somehow supported by preliminary acoustic analysis, White-fronted with longer and sharper notes, and Rough-legged with short and lower frequency notes [8,9]. Recently, Parra and Arias [10] used PCA to group the subspecies of this complex from vocalization. The results supported the existence of two main groups; however, the study was not conclusive since there was an overlap between the groups in the PCA representation, and the number of samples included only 42 individuals. A more sensitive analysis technique with larger sampled dataset is needed to clearly separate potential groups, allowing definitive conclusions.

2.2. Dataset

We analyzed the vocalizations of N = 101 individuals of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato), whose localization ranged from Costa Rica to Uruguay (Figure 1, Table S1). Our dataset corresponded to four of the six known taxa of the complex. These data were taken from the virtual repositories xeno-canto [32], Macaulay Library [33], Ecoregistros [34], and the Avian Vocalizations Center of Michigan State University [35]. From the 227 vocalizations available in those repositories (Table S1), we defined three selection criteria for the inclusion of vocalization in our analysis. First, we used only vocalizations that include at least 6 notes. Second, we excluded those vocalizations with low quality regarding signal-to-noise ratio (lower differentiation with background noise). Third, we chose vocalizations from different geographic areas of each country, depending on the availability of vocalizations. Based on these criteria, we analyzed 100% of the data available from Bolivia, Panama, Uruguay, and Venezuela, and more than 75% of the vocalizations available from Colombia, Costa Rica, Paraguay, and Peru. Regarding the three countries with the highest number of vocalizations available, we included more than 30% of the vocalizations from Argentina, Ecuador, and Brazil (Figure S1). Table S1 includes location, taxa, elevation, and subject ID (within the specific catalog) of the audio samples of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato) included in our analysis (Figure 1). For each vocalization of a given individual, we extracted a maximum of ten notes. Most vocalization had 10 or more notes available. For illustration purposes, we have provided two representative recordings in the Supplementary Materials (Audio S1, Audio S2). For each note, we computed four acoustic parameters: (1) dominant frequency (F-Dom) in kHz; (2) note duration in seconds (Delta-t); (3) maximum frequency (F-Max); and (4) minimum frequency (F-Min). To extract these parameters, we used Raven version 1.2.1 [36]. Each individual corresponds to a row of the matrix D, as shown below. Notice that as we computed four measures for each of the ten notes, the matrix has forty columns (these are the dimensions to begin the UMAP analysis). The size of D is 101 (individuals) × 40 (dimensions). UMAP analysis was conducted in MATLAB (MathWorks, Inc., Natick, USA) [37], but there is a UMAP implementation available in R.
D = ( F − D o m 1 , 1 D e l t a − t 1 , 1 F − M a x 1 , 1 F − M i n 1 , 1 F − D o m 2 , 1 D e l t a − t 2 , 1 F − M a x 3 , 1 F − D o m 1 , 2 D e l t a − t 1 , 2 F − M a x 1 , 2 F − M i n 1 , 2 F − D o m 2 , 2 D e l t a − t 2 , 2 F − M a x 3 , 2 ⋯ F − M i n 10 , 1 F − M i n 10 , 2 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ F − D o m 1 , N D e l t a − t 1 , N F − M a x 1 , N F − M i n 1 , N F − D o m 2 , N D e l t a − t 2 , N F − M a x 3 , N ⋯ F − M i n 10 , N )
where the first sub-index represents the note, and the second sub-index represents the individual.

2.3. The Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP)

UMAP constructs a high dimensional graph representation of the data then optimizes a low-dimensional graph to be as structurally similar as possible [23]. In summary, UMAP constructs a weighted graph from the high dimensional data, with strength representing how connected a given point is to another, then projects this graph down to a lower dimensionality. UMAP algorithm is founded on three assumptions about the data: (1) the data is uniformly distributed on Riemannian manifold; (2) the Riemannian metric is locally constant or can be approximated as such; and (3) the manifold is locally connected. While the mathematics UMAP uses to construct the high-dimensional graph is advanced, the intuition behind them is remarkably simple.
Here we are providing the basic details and simple exemplification of the functioning of UMAP. For a complete description of the UMAP algorithm, please see [23]. UMAP builds a representation of a weighted graph (the ‘fuzzy simplicial complex’), with edge weights representing the likelihood of connection of each pair of data points. To assess connectedness, UMAP extends a radius outwards from each point, connecting points when those radii overlap. Choosing this radius is critical because a radius too small will lead to small, isolated clusters, while too large radius will connect everything. To overcome this challenge, UMAP chooses a radius locally, based on the distance to each point’s ‘nth’ nearest neighbor. Figure 2 exemplifies the process. In this exemplifying two-dimension dataset, we have extended the radius at 22% (center) and 100% (right) of the distance of each point to its 5th neighbor. UMAP then makes the graph ‘blurred’ by decreasing the likelihood of connection as the radius grows. In Figure 2, notice that past the intersection with the first neighbor, the radius begins to get blurred, meaning that subsequent connections have less weight. Finally, by stipulating that each point must be connected to at least its closest neighbor, UMAP ensures that local structure is preserved in balance with the global structure. From the resulting graph, UMAP optimizes the layout of a low-dimensional analog to be as similar as possible. Furthermore, we performed k-medoids clustering [38] to test which cluster each individual belongs to. We used the squared Euclidean distance metric and the k-means++ algorithm for choosing initial cluster medoid positions [39]. Then, we map each record and compare the elevation between the groups with a Mann–Whitney test (given the non-normality of the data, as evidenced by the Shapiro test).

3. Results

We have found that UMAP clearly split the individuals into two groups during the dimensionality reduction from 40 to two dimensions in our dataset of Rough-legged Tyrannulet vocalizations (Figure 3). The values in the axis of the representation do not have a direct interpretation but represent the most similar projection of the original set of 40 dimensions into two dimensions. The contours of the two clusters showed a clear separation between them, which is congruent with the differential distribution between groups. The results suggest that the data met the assumptions of the UMAP algorithm. Furthermore, the results of the k-medoids clustering analysis, including the country of localization of each individual sample, showed segregation in the horizontal axis for the two-dimensional plot (Figure 3). The results support the separation of the two groups by geographical location (country). The first group (Group A) included individuals from Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil. The second group (Group B) included individuals from Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Costa Rica, Colombia, Panama, and Venezuela.
For comparison purposes, we implemented PCA and t-SNE for dimensionality reduction and clustering (Figure 4). For PCA, the two first components are used as X- (first principal component, PC 1), and Y-axis (second principal component, PC 2). It can be observed that PCA provides some separation with a certain spread of the groups. Two PE individuals were included in Group A, which is very unlikely to be correct. As for t-SNE, one CR individual is clustered with Group A and one AR was included in Group B, as the separation between groups is not as clear as with UMAP.
When mapping our UMAP clustering results in the distribution of the species (Figure 5), there is a congruence in taxonomic treatment in two main groups: Group A, Rough-legged (P. burmeisteri), and Group B, White-fronted Tyrannulet (P. zeledoni). Group A included burmeisteri, while Group B included the subspecies zeledoni, viridiceps, and leucogonys. The resulting visualization allows direct analysis and inferring the distribution patterns of the individuals, considering the spatial locations of each individual. Of particular interest, the northern Bolivia distribution records seem to have almost sympatric populations for both groups, segregating individuals of leucogonys and burmeisteri subspecies in a multivariate space. These individuals of Rough-legged (Group A) could inhabit the dry and low areas with respect to those of White-fronted (Group B).
The two groups also differed in recorded elevation (Figure 6; Mann–Whitney test, p < 0.001). Records of White-fronted Tyrannulet were at a higher elevation, with a median 1198.5 m and interquartile range (IQR) from 1064.6 to 2166.3 m. Records of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu strictu) were lower in elevation, with a median 665.2 m and IQR from 225.4 to 982.3 m.

4. Discussion

For the first time, we have conducted a UMAP dimensionality reduction analysis to separate bird taxa based on acoustic signals. UMAP was more effective and sensitive than previously used techniques [10], as it allowed clearer grouping subspecies from taxa. The analysis framework based on UMAP showed more clearly than ever that the Rough-legged Tyrannulet complex could be effectively separated into two groups by their vocalizations, but our results require other analyses to have a better understanding of the taxonomy and evolution history within the group [41,42,43]. The accuracy of UMAP in this study suggests that the mathematical power of the technique can be useful in the analysis of vocalizations in species with complex taxonomy as a complementary tool including behavioral traits as acoustic communication.
As for the results of the two group identification using UMAP, the first group corresponded to individuals from southern South America (P. burmeisteri), distributed geographically in southeastern Bolivia, southern Brazil, southeastern Paraguay, Uruguay, the northeast of Argentina, and the foothills of the Andes from northwest Bolivia to northwest Argentina. The second group is distributed towards the north of South America and Central America (P. zeledoni) so that the limit is established where both species break into the north of Bolivia. Such treatment of these two groups has been used in several taxonomic arrangements, but there is still no consensus in the South American Classification Committee [11]. For example, the Andean group (leucogonys) has been proposed as different from Central America (zeledoni), but our UMAP analysis suggested these two groups to be combined by vocal traits. Treatment as species for these groups has not been supported based on a lack of published analysis of vocal differences [10,31]. We provide here a sensitive and robust analysis that separates acoustically two taxa within the complex. Further analysis must include individuals of subspecies not included here (viridiceps, wetmorei, and bunites), some with shared distribution of recently separated species complex of the humid Andes [42,43].
Our UMAP analysis included the Central America subspecies, zeledoni, the Venezuelan mountain, viridiceps, and Andean population, leucogonys, as a unique group distributed at a higher elevation (White-fronted Tyrannulet). Central America records ranged from 1182 to 3365 m, Venezuelan records from ~800 to 1150, and Andean records from 865 to 2000 m. Simultaneously, our UMAP analysis included the two allopatric populations of the Yungas and the Atlantic Forest as a differentiated group at a much lower elevation (Rough-legged Tyrannulet). The Yungas foothills records ranged from 100 to 2000 m, while the Atlantic Forest records ranged from 15 to 2300 m. In the Yungas the warm and humid air of the tropical humid forest is trapped and the level of precipitation is much higher than in surrounding areas [44]. At the northern but lower portion, the predominance of dry and semideciduous forests is relevant [45].
The central Andes or Yungas (Bosque Tucumán, Bolivia) and the Atlantic Forest are separated by a distance of 700 km, which exhibits an open vegetation corridor made up of Caatinga, the Cerrado and the Chaqueña regions [46,47,48,49]. However, these areas have high convergent characteristics and taxonomic similarities [46,47,50,51], which indicates that there was an ancient historical and biotic connection between these biomes [48,52,53], likely to concur during the Pleistocene [48,51,54]. Thus, the Yungas and the Atlantic Forest are considered to have functioned as a biodiversity refuge during the Pleistocene [55,56,57]. It has been postulated that the emerging species would be the product of the isolations originated by the climatic changes during the Quaternary, effective to allow speciation [58], the product of processes that include the elevation of the Andes. Such climatic fluctuations have resulted in habitat fragmentation during the Quaternary and the emergence of river and landscape barriers [59,60,61,62,63].
Similarly, it has been pointed out that the uprising of the Andes was an important driver of avian diversification because it gave rise to novel environments in which species could spread and diversify, where greater opportunities for allopatric differentiation in mountain areas were promoted [63,64,65]. Thus, some of these patterns contributed to the acoustic differentiation between Rough-legged and White-fronted tyrannulets, as has been suggested in some studies where these biomes have been considered as important promoters of species diversification [48,51,54,66,67].
Our work consolidates the postulates of two acoustic divergent groups [9,10], as well as recent classifications [8], but further genetic analysis must be included to confirm our conclusions. Furthermore, we have shown that UMAP can be used for performing such analyzes effectively. We expected that UMAP could help to classify other bird species or groups of organisms from the analysis of their acoustic traits. For instance, species that due to their morphological characteristics as plumage are difficult to separate taxonomically. However, it is important to apply and define this technique in organisms with more complex vocalizations, taking into account that animals emit acoustic signals that vary in complexity, which represents from a single repeated call (note), as in the case of our species model, to hundreds of different vocal elements [68].
Animal vocalizations have been previously projected onto a linear feature of spaces using principal component analysis [10,69]. In that scenario, as our results suggested, each successive dimension represents an orthogonal transformation capturing the maximum possible variance between the data [68,70]. Vocalizations can also be decomposed into characteristics using linear discriminant analysis [5] where characteristics are determined by their ability to explain variance in a specific dimension of data, such as individual identity [68,71]. However, the dimensionality reduction may also be non-linear, representing a greater number of data relationships (for example, the similarity between notes of birdsong). The usefulness of nonlinear dimensionality reduction techniques is just beginning to be studied in animal communication [68]. For example, using stochastic neighborhood inlay distributed in t (t-SNE) [26] as is the case study of the development description of the Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata) [68,72]. Other studies have validated UMAP as a suitable dimensionality reduction technique, that plays an important role in data science, as the most effective visualization and analysis of multiple data to date [13,23], so that the statistical relationships generate more appropriate forms for the explanation of groups than some traditional linear techniques.
In this study, we compared UMAP to other dimensionality reduction techniques, namely PCA and t-SNE. UMAP has provided better results as the separation of the two groups was clearer using UMAP, whereas PCA and t-SNE showed some overlap between groups (Figure 4). Furthermore, PCA and t-SNE assigned individuals to groups to which they are very unlikely to belong to. These results evidenced the unique advantages of UMAP, compared to PCA and t-SNE.
As for the limitations of the study, the dataset consisting of 101 individuals could be considered low to make conclusive claims. We have used a significant sample from the available recordings of the Rough-legged Tyrannulet Phyllomyias burmeisteri complex, as evidenced in the Supplementary Materials (Table S1, Figure S1). Nevertheless, UMAP was able to perform a dimensionality reduction that allowed us to separate the two groups more accurately than with PCA and t-SNE, which evidences the appropriateness of the technique.

5. Conclusions

We proposed a novel approach for acoustic analysis of subgroups using dimensionality reduction capacities of UMAP. UMAP allows the grouping of species taxa in a clear way, based on graphic analysis from acoustic data. The UMAP optimizes the low-dimensional analog graphic representation of the data, whose visualization is as similar as possible to the original structure of the data. The proposed UMAP analysis successfully defined the separation of Rough-legged Tyrannulet complex into two acoustic groups. Taxonomical and evolutionary outputs of our analysis could be supported with further work in phylogenetic approaches within the group.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/8/1406/s1, Table S1: Phyllomyias_burmeisteri_AudioML_XC, Figure S1: Proportion of recordings used, Audio S1: Group A sample recording, Audio S2: Group B sample recording. The sample vocalizations were included with authorization of the authors.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: R.M.P.-H., and O.A.-C.; Data curation: R.M.P.-H. and O.A.-C.; Investigation: R.M.P.-H., J.I.P.-Q., O.A.-C., and H.F.P.-Q.; Methodology: R.M.P.-H., O.A.-C., and H.F.P.-Q.; Software: H.F.P.-Q.; Writing–original draft: R.M.P.-H.; Writing–review & editing: J.I.P.-Q., O.A.-C., and H.F.P.-Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

We thank Matthew Medler at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology for his assistance in providing sounds from Macaulay Library. We would like to thank all recordists that shared their sounds through Macaulay Library and xeno-canto. We thank Adrian Eisen for allowing us to share his recording from Brazil.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest

References

  1. De Silva G, H.G. Comparative analysis of the vocalizations of Hylorchilus wrens. Condor 1997, 99, 981–984. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Cadena, C.D.; Caro, L.M.; Caycedo, P.C.; Cuervo, A.M.; Bowie, R.C.; Slabbekoorn, H. Henicorhina anachoreta (Troglodytidae), another endemic bird species for the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Ornitol. Colomb. 2015, 15, 82–89. [Google Scholar]
  3. Avendaño, J.E.; Cuervo, A.M.; López-O, J.P.; Gutiérrez-Pinto, N.; Cortés-Diago, A.; Cadena, C.D. A new species of tapaculo (Rhinocryptidae: Scytalopus) from the Serranía de Perijá of Colombia and Venezuela. Auk Ornithol. Adv. 2015, 132, 450–466. [Google Scholar]
  4. Whitney, B. A new Scytalopus tapaculo (RHINOCRYPTIDAE) from Bolivia, with notes on other Bolivian members of the genus and the MAGELLANICUS complex. Wilson Bull 1994, 106, 585–614. [Google Scholar]
  5. Stiles, F.G.; Laverde-R, O.; Cadena, C.D. A new species of tapaculo (Rhinocryptidae: Scytalopus) from the Western Andes of Colombia. Auk Ornithol. Adv. 2017, 134, 377–392. [Google Scholar]
  6. Isler, M.L.; Isler, P.R.; Whitney, B.M. Use of vocalizations to establish species limits in antbirds (Passeriformes: Thamnophilidae). Auk 1998, 115, 577–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Clay, R.P.; Tobias, J.A.; Lowen, J.C.; Beadle, D. Field identification of Phylloscartes and Phyllomyias tyrannulets in the Atlantic Forest region. Cotinga 1998, 10, 82–95. [Google Scholar]
  8. Rising, J.; Jaramillo, A.; Del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; De Juana, E. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive; Lynx Edicions: Barcelona, Spain, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  9. Boesman, P. Notes on the vocalizations of Roughlegged Tyrannulet (Phyllomyias burmeisteri). HBW Alive Ornithological Note 137. In Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive; Lynx Edicions: Barcelona, Spain, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  10. Parra-Hernández, R.M.; Arias-Moreno, H.D. Primer registro de Phyllomyias burmeisteri para la cordillera Central de los Andes colombianos, con comentarios en su variación acústica. Ornitol. Colomb. 2019, 17, 1–7. [Google Scholar]
  11. South American Classification Committee. Available online: https://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm (accessed on 30 June 2020).
  12. Brownlee, J. Introduction to Dimensionality Reduction for Machine Learning; Machine Learning Mastery: Vermont, Australia, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  13. Sethi, S.S.; Jones, N.S.; Fulcher, B.D.; Picinali, L.; Clink, D.J.; Klinck, H.; Orme, C.D.L.; Wrege, P.H.; Ewers, R.M. Characterizing soundscapes across diverse ecosystems using a universal acoustic feature set. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020, 117, 17049–17055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Lee, J.-Y.; Kwon, J.-C.; Kim, J.-J. Multifactor Dimensionality Reduction (MDR) Analysis to Detect Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Associated with a Carcass Trait in a Hanwoo Population. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2008, 21, 784–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Gisbrecht, A.; Hammer, B.; Mokbel, B.; Sczyrba, A. Nonlinear Dimensionality Reduction for Cluster Identification in Metagenomic Samples. In Proceedings of the 2013 17th International Conference on Information Visualisation, London, UK, 16–18 July 2013; pp. 174–179. [Google Scholar]
  16. Classification of Humans and Animals Using an Infrared Profiling Sensor. Available online: https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7333/733310/Classification-of-humans-and-animals-using-an-infrared-profiling-sensor/10.1117/12.819885.short?SSO=1 (accessed on 29 June 2020).
  17. Dooling, R.J.; Leek, M.R.; Gleich, O.; Dent, M.L. Auditory temporal resolution in birds: Discrimination of harmonic complexes. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2002, 112, 748–759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Okanoya, K.; Yamaguchi, A. Adult Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata var. domestica) require real-time auditory feedback to produce normal song syntax. J. Neurobiol. 1997, 33, 343–356. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  19. Herzog, S.K.; Kessler, M.; Balderrama, J.A. A new species of tyrannulet (Tyrannidae: Phyllomyias) from Andean foothills in northwest Bolivia and adjacent Peru. Auk 2008, 125, 265–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Grant, B.R.; Grant, P.R. Songs of Darwin’s finches diverge when a new species enters the community. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 20156–20163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  21. McDonald, P.G. Cooperative bird differentiates between the calls of different individuals, even when vocalizations were from completely unfamiliar individuals. Biol. Lett. 2012, 8, 365–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Repenning, M.; Fontana, C.S. A new species of gray seedeater (Emberizidae: Sporophila) from upland grasslands of southern Brazil. Auk 2013, 130, 791–803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. McInnes, L.; Healy, J.; Melville, J. UMAP: Uniform manifold approximation and projection for dimension reduction. arXiv 2018, arXiv:1802.03426. [Google Scholar]
  24. Hotelling, H. Analysis of a complex of statistical variables into principal components. J. Educ. Psychol. 1933, 24, 417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kruskal, J.B. Multidimensional scaling by optimizing goodness of fit to a nonmetric hypothesis. Psychometrika 1964, 29, 1–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Van der Maaten, L.; Hinton, G. Visualizing data using t-SNE. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 2008, 9, 2579–2605. [Google Scholar]
  27. Coifman, R.R.; Lafon, S. Diffusion Maps: Applied and Computational Harmonic Analysis; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  28. Bowman, N.; Liu, D.; Paczkowski, P.; Chen, J.; Rossi, J.; Mackay, S.; Bot, A.; Zhou, J. Advanced Cell Mapping Visualizations for Single Cell Functional Proteomics Enabling Patient Stratification. Proteomics 2020, 20, 1900270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Smets, T.; Verbeeck, N.; Claesen, M.; Asperger, A.; Griffioen, G.; Tousseyn, T.; Waelput, W.; Waelkens, E.; De Moor, B. Evaluation of Distance Metrics and Spatial Autocorrelation in Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection Applied to Mass Spectrometry Imaging Data. Anal. Chem. 2019, 91, 5706–5714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  30. Leland, M.; John, H.; Nathaniel, S.; Lukas, G. UMAP: Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection. J. Open Source Softw. 2018, 3, 861. [Google Scholar]
  31. Fitzpatrick, J.W.; Del Hoyo, J.; Kirwan, G.M.; Collar, N. Rough-legged Tyrannulet (Phyllomyias burmeisteri), versión 1.0. In Birds of the World; Billerman, S.M., Keeney, B.K., Rodewald, P.G., Schulenberg, T.S., Eds.; Cornell Lab of Ornithologym: Ithaca, NY, USA; Available online: https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/roltyr1/cur/introduction (accessed on 25 May 2020).
  32. Willem-Pier Vellinga. Bird sounds from around the world. 2020. Available online: https://www.xeno-canto.org/ (accessed on 25 May 2020).
  33. Macaulay Library. Available online: https://www3.macaulaylibrary.org/ (accessed on 25 May 2020).
  34. EcoRegistros. Available online: http://www.ecoregistros.org/site/index.php (accessed on 7 June 2020).
  35. AVoCet: Recording of White-fronted Tyrannulet, Phyllomyias Zeledoni. Available online: https://avocet.integrativebiology.natsci.msu.edu/recordings/17970 (accessed on 4 August 2020).
  36. Charif, R.A.; Clark, C.W.; Fristrup, K.M. Raven 1.2 User’s Manual; Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology: Ithaca, NY, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  37. Meehan, C.; Meehan, S.; Moore, W. Available online: https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/71902 (accessed on 25 May 2020).
  38. Park, H.-S.; Jun, C.-H. A simple and fast algorithm for K-medoids clustering. Expert Syst. Appl. 2009, 36, 3336–3341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Arthur, D.; Vassilvitskii, S. k-Means++: The Advantages of Careful Seeding; Stanford University: Stanford, CA, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  40. Understanding UMAP. Available online: https://pair-code.github.io/understanding-umap/ (accessed on 10 June 2020).
  41. Cadena, C.D.; Cuervo, A.M. Molecules, ecology, morphology, and songs in concert: How many species is Arremon torquatus (Aves: Emberizidae)? Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 2010, 99, 152–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Chesser, R.T.; Isler, M.L.; Cuervo, A.M.; Cadena, C.D.; Galen, S.C.; Bergner, L.M.; Fleischer, R.C.; Bravo, G.A.; Lane, D.F.; Hosner, P.A. Conservative plumage masks extraordinary phylogenetic diversity in the Grallaria rufula (Rufous Antpitta) complex of the humid Andes. Auk 2020, 137, ukaa009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. ISLER, M.L.; CHESSER, R.T.; ROBBINS, M.B.; CUERVO, A.M.; CADENA, C.D.; HOSNER, P.A. Taxonomic evaluation of the Grallaria rufula (Rufous Antpitta) complex (Aves: Passeriformes: Grallariidae) distinguishes sixteen species. Zootaxa 2020, 4817, 1–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Stattersfield, A.J. Endemic Bird Areas of the World-Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation; Bird Life International: Cambridge, UK, 1998. [Google Scholar]
  45. Herzog, S.K.; Hennessey, A.B.; Kessler, M.; Garcia-Soliz, V.H. Distribution, natural history and conservation status of two endemics of the Bolivian Yungas, Bolivian Recurvebill Simoxenops striatus and Yungas Antwren Myrmotherula grisea. Bird Conserv. Int. 2008, 18, 331–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Nores, M. Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction. Auk 1992, 109, 346–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Da Silva, J.M.C. Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery-forest expansion-retraction caused by Quaternary climatic changes? Auk 1994, 111, 495–499. [Google Scholar]
  48. Trujillo-Arias, N.; Calderón, L.; Santos, F.R.; Miyaki, C.Y.; Aleixo, A.; Witt, C.C.; Tubaro, P.L.; Cabanne, G.S. Forest corridors between the central Andes and the southern Atlantic Forest enabled dispersal and peripatric diversification without niche divergence in a passerine. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2018, 128, 221–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Cabanne, G.S.; Campagna, L.; Trujillo-Arias, N.; Naoki, K.; Gómez, I.; Miyaki, C.Y.; Santos, F.R.; Dantas, G.P.; Aleixo, A.; Claramunt, S. Phylogeographic variation within the Buff-browed Foliage-gleaner (Aves: Furnariidae: Syndactyla rufosuperciliata) supports an Andean-Atlantic forests connection via the Cerrado. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2019, 133, 198–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Chapman, F.M.; Cherrie, G.K.; Richardson, W.B.; Gill, G.; O’Connell, G.M.; Tate, G.H.H.; Murphy, R.C.; Anthony, H.E. The Distribution of Bird-Life in Ecuador: A Contribution to a Study of the Origin of Andean Bird-Life; Order of the Trustees; American Museum of Natural History: New York, NY, USA, 1926. [Google Scholar]
  51. Oblanca, L.; Damián, P. Estudio de los Patrones de Diversificación de la Avifauna Neotropical a Través del Análisis de Especies de Ambientes Selváticos. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de Buenos, Aires Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  52. Nores, M. Quaternary vegetational changes and bird differentiation in subtropical South America. Auk 1994, 111, 499–503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Trujillo-Arias, N.; Rodríguez-Cajarville, M.J.; Sari, E.; Miyaki, C.Y.; Santos, F.R.; Witt, C.C.; Barreira, A.S.; Gomez, M.I.; Naoki, K.; Tubaro, P.L. Evolution between forest macrorefugia is linked to discordance between genetic and morphological variation in Neotropical passerines. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2020, 149, 106849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Trujillo-Arias, N.; Dantas, G.P.; Arbeláez-Cortés, E.; Naoki, K.; Gómez, M.I.; Santos, F.R.; Miyaki, C.Y.; Aleixo, A.; Tubaro, P.L.; Cabanne, G.S. The niche and phylogeography of a passerine reveal the history of biological diversification between the Andean and the Atlantic forests. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2017, 112, 107–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Kappelle, M.; Brown, A.D. Bosques Nublados del Neotrópico; Instituto Nacional de la Biodiversidad Santo Domingo: Heredia, Costa Rica, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  56. Quiroga, M.P.; Premoli, A.C. Genetic patterns in Podocarpus parlatorei reveal the long-term persistence of cold-tolerant elements in the southern Yungas. J. Biogeogr. 2007, 34, 447–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Quiroga, M.P. Comparación entre el bosque templado austral y el bosque tucumano-boliviano considerando géneros con especies de hábito arbóreo. Gayana Botánica 2010, 67, 176–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Morales, J.M.; Sirombra, M.; Brown, A. Riqueza de Árboles en las Yungas. 1995. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281150208_Riqueza_de_Arboles_en_Yungas_Argentinas#fullTextFileContent (accessed on 6 May 2020).
  59. Haffer, J. Speciation in Amazonian forest birds. Science 1969, 165, 131–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Nores, M. An alternative hypothesis for the origin of Amazonian bird diversity. J. Biogeogr. 1999, 26, 475–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Hoorn, C.; Wesselingh, F.P.; Ter Steege, H.; Bermudez, M.A.; Mora, A.; Sevink, J.; Sanmartín, I.; Sanchez-Meseguer, A.; Anderson, C.L.; Figueiredo, J.P. Amazonia through time: Andean uplift, climate change, landscape evolution, and biodiversity. Science 2010, 330, 927–931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  62. Cadena, C.D.; Pedraza, C.A.; Brumfield, R.T. Climate, habitat associations and the potential distributions of Neotropical birds: Implications for diversification across the Andes. Rev. Acad. Colomb. Cienc. Exactas Físicas Nat. 2016, 40, 275–287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  63. Smith, B.T.; McCormack, J.E.; Cuervo, A.M.; Hickerson, M.J.; Aleixo, A.; Cadena, C.D.; Perez-Eman, J.; Burney, C.W.; Xie, X.; Harvey, M.G. The drivers of tropical speciation. Nature 2014, 515, 406–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Chapman, F.M. The Distribution of Bird-Life in Colombia: A Contribution to a Biological Survey of South America; American Museum of Natural History: New York, NY, USA, 1917. [Google Scholar]
  65. Hughes, C.; Eastwood, R. Island radiation on a continental scale: Exceptional rates of plant diversification after uplift of the Andes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 10334–10339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  66. Kratter, A.W. A new subspecies of Sclerurus albigularis (Gray-throated Leaftosser) from northeastern Bolivia, with notes on geographic variation. Ornitol. Neotrop. 1997, 8, 23–30. [Google Scholar]
  67. Rocha, A.V.; Rivera, L.O.; Martinez, J.; Prestes, N.P.; Caparroz, R. Biogeography of speciation of two sister species of neotropical Amazona (Aves, Psittaciformes) based on mitochondrial sequence data. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e108096. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  68. Sainburg, T.; Thielk, M.; Gentner, T.Q. Latent space visualization, characterization, and generation of diverse vocal communication signals. bioRxiv 2019, 870311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  69. Krabbe, N.K.; Schulenberg, T.S.; Hosner, P.A.; Rosenberg, K.V.; Davis, T.J.; Rosenberg, G.H.; Lane, D.F.; Andersen, M.J.; Robbins, M.B.; Cadena, C.D. Untangling cryptic diversity in the High Andes: Revision of the Scytalopus [magellanicus] complex (Rhinocryptidae) in Peru reveals three new species. Auk 2020, 137, ukaa003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Kershenbaum, A.; Blumstein, D.T.; Roch, M.A.; Akçay, Ç.; Backus, G.; Bee, M.A.; Bohn, K.; Cao, Y.; Carter, G.; Cäsar, C. Acoustic sequences in non-human animals: A tutorial review and prospectus. Biol. Rev. 2016, 91, 13–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  71. Miller, C.T.; Mandel, K.; Wang, X. The communicative content of the common marmoset phee call during antiphonal calling. Am. J. Primatol. 2010, 72, 974–980. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  72. Kollmorgen, S.; Hahnloser, R.; Mante, V. Neighborhood-statistics reveal complex dynamics of song acquisition in the zebra finch. bioRxiv 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Animals 10 01406 g001 550
Figure 1. Distribution of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato). Records used in the bioacoustics analysis with Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) are represented by a pink square (Table S1). Hollow circles are other acoustic records, not used here in the analysis. Country codes alpha-2 represent the countries with records.
Figure 1. Distribution of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato). Records used in the bioacoustics analysis with Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP) are represented by a pink square (Table S1). Hollow circles are other acoustic records, not used here in the analysis. Country codes alpha-2 represent the countries with records.
Animals 10 01406 g001
Animals 10 01406 g002 550
Figure 2. Illustration of UMAP process. Original data points (left), 22% of the distance to 5th neighbor (center), and 100% of the distance to 5th neighbor (right). Beyond the intersection with the first neighbor, the radius begins to get blurred, assigning less weight to subsequent connections [40].
Figure 2. Illustration of UMAP process. Original data points (left), 22% of the distance to 5th neighbor (center), and 100% of the distance to 5th neighbor (right). Beyond the intersection with the first neighbor, the radius begins to get blurred, assigning less weight to subsequent connections [40].
Animals 10 01406 g002
Animals 10 01406 g003 550
Figure 3. UMAP visualization and k-medoids clustering of the N = 101 samples of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato) included in the study. Two clusters are identified using markers: Group A with blue circles, Group B with red x-mark. Each individual is labeled with the country of precedence using country codes alpha-2.
Figure 3. UMAP visualization and k-medoids clustering of the N = 101 samples of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato) included in the study. Two clusters are identified using markers: Group A with blue circles, Group B with red x-mark. Each individual is labeled with the country of precedence using country codes alpha-2.
Animals 10 01406 g003
Animals 10 01406 g004 550
Figure 4. Comparison of results using UMAP, principal components analysis (PCA), and t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE). Each individual is labeled with the country of precedence using country codes alpha-2, and groups are marked using text color: Group A in blue, Group B in red.
Figure 4. Comparison of results using UMAP, principal components analysis (PCA), and t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE). Each individual is labeled with the country of precedence using country codes alpha-2, and groups are marked using text color: Group A in blue, Group B in red.
Animals 10 01406 g004
Animals 10 01406 g005 550
Figure 5. Segregation by the distribution of two different acoustic groups within the Rough-legged Tyrannulet complex.
Figure 5. Segregation by the distribution of two different acoustic groups within the Rough-legged Tyrannulet complex.
Animals 10 01406 g005
Animals 10 01406 g006 550
Figure 6. Elevation comparison between two groups of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato). Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu strictu; Phyllomyias burmeisteri) and White-fronted Tyrannulet (P. zeledoni) differed in median elevation. White violin plots show the density of records in the elevation axis. Box plots show the interquartile range (IQR) from the first and third quartile (25 and 75% data), while whiskers extend up to ±1.5 × IQR.
Figure 6. Elevation comparison between two groups of Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu lato). Rough-legged Tyrannulet (sensu strictu; Phyllomyias burmeisteri) and White-fronted Tyrannulet (P. zeledoni) differed in median elevation. White violin plots show the density of records in the elevation axis. Box plots show the interquartile range (IQR) from the first and third quartile (25 and 75% data), while whiskers extend up to ±1.5 × IQR.
Animals 10 01406 g006

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Parra-Hernández, R.M.; Posada-Quintero, J.I.; Acevedo-Charry, O.; Posada-Quintero, H.F. Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Clustering Taxa through Vocalizations in a Neotropical Passerine (Rough-Legged Tyrannulet, Phyllomyias burmeisteri). Animals 2020, 10, 1406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081406

AMA Style

Parra-Hernández RM, Posada-Quintero JI, Acevedo-Charry O, Posada-Quintero HF. Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Clustering Taxa through Vocalizations in a Neotropical Passerine (Rough-Legged Tyrannulet, Phyllomyias burmeisteri). Animals. 2020; 10(8):1406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081406

Chicago/Turabian Style

Parra-Hernández, Ronald M., Jorge I. Posada-Quintero, Orlando Acevedo-Charry, and Hugo F. Posada-Quintero. 2020. "Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection for Clustering Taxa through Vocalizations in a Neotropical Passerine (Rough-Legged Tyrannulet, Phyllomyias burmeisteri)" Animals 10, no. 8: 1406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10081406

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop