A Novel Integrated Spatiotemporal-Variable Model of Landscape Changes in Traditional Villages in the Jinshaan Gorge, Yellow River Basin

Abstract

Spatiotemporal studies of landscape pattern evolution in traditional villages are beneficial for addressing complex urbanization and global climate change. Using the traditional villages of Jiaxian and Linxian in the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River Basin, this study employed a three-dimensional (3D) analysis involving three spatial scales (macro, meso, and micro), temporal scales (past, present, and future), and variables (humanity, society, and nature) based on the methods of spatiotemporal data analysis (SDA), geographic information system, remote sensing, and landscape pattern index (LPI) by Fragstats. On the macro scale, a significant turning point in ecological conservation awareness was indicated by LPI and SDA. Urban and rural construction land continuously increased because of urbanization. Plowland, grassland, and woodland were the main influencing factors in the evolution of rural settlements, with a 0.42% cumulative transformation rate. On the meso scale, the interactions and mutual promotion of mountain and aquatic environments, aquatic facilities, agricultural production, and cultural heritage have shaped the socioeconomic dimensions of evolution. On the micro scale, with urbanization, some traditional humanistic spaces have lost their original functions. A novel spatiotemporal-variable quantitative model explored the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of human–land coupling, which can be used for the sustainable development of river basins worldwide.

1. Introduction

Persistent global warming and rapid urbanization have resulted in more frequent natural disasters, thereby presenting significant challenges to the ecological management of basin environments and their human settlements [1,2,3,4]. In particular, rural watershed settlements have developed into more complex macrosystems under the challenging global background [5,6,7,8]. Notably, environmental concerns in China are exacerbated by high-intensity SO₂ emissions in the Yellow River Basin, which holds immense cultural, economic, and ecological significance [9]. Therefore, the Yellow River Basin faces considerable challenges in achieving “double carbon” goals and sustainable development [10,11]. In addition, accelerated urbanization and industrialization have led to the decline and disappearance of many villages [12,13,14]. This is a global phenomenon that also, includes China [15,16,17]. Traditional villages are cherished for their unique historical and cultural value [18]; the disappearance of traditional villages in the Yellow River Basin jeopardizes China’s cultural heritage and historical importance. Therefore, studying the human–land and human–water evolutionary relationships are of great significance for the conservation and development of traditional villages in the Yellow River Basin.

Villages signify settlements that have evolved from prehistoric hunting–gathering societies to agrarian communities, incorporating habitats for agricultural livelihoods. The rural landscape, which is deeply rooted in nature, is distinct as it blends various elements centered around villages into a cohesive ecosystem [19,20,21]. Rural landscapes exhibit diverse traits that are influenced by environmental, economic, and cultural factors [12]. Villages which have long histories, retain folk customs, and have not made significant changes to their architectural appearance are referred to as traditional Chinese villages [17,22]. Five government organs, including the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the National Cultural Heritage Administration and the Ministry of Finance, have worked together to place a total of 8155 traditional villages under State protection (http://english.www.gov.cn/, accessed on 25 July 2023). The value of traditional Chinese villages is diverse and irreplaceable. They reflect historical memory and methods of production, living wisdom, as well as cultural and artistic essence, and regional characteristics [23]. Also, they are an important part of world cultural heritage [24]. Traditional villages are cultural landscapes formed via mutual adaptation and co-development of humans and nature. Therefore, studying the evolution of traditional villages holds significant importance within the context of urbanization.

With the changing environment, there is a dynamic coupling mechanism between the water environment and urban–rural settlement spaces, where both evolve and interact, as observed in the study of human–water relationships [25,26,27,28]. Abundant hydrological resources are important for the reproduction and development of villages because the aquatic environment plays a crucial role in shaping the village’s spatial layout and structure [29]. Therefore, villages are products of mutual interactions between human settlements and water environments. These include evolution of the overall natural land use and landscape patterns, as well as transformations of socio-economic production levels involving population, economy, technology, and culture [16]. Furthermore, human history contributes to the evolution of architecture and human spaces [17,30,31]. These evolutionary processes manifest varying positive or negative characteristics over different periods and under diverse socio-economic contexts [24]. The influence of water environments on the morphology of settlements mainly stems from two aspects: (a) flood control of settlements; and (b) the transformation and utilization of water environments. Water conservancy projects and the water environment collectively influence the distribution and morphology of settlements. The consequences of water conservancy projects and water disasters on settlements result in a water-related social relationship. With increasing global warming and China’s northward-shifting rainfall, the arid Yellow River Basin is increasingly vulnerable to extreme disasters [32,33]. Rapid urbanization has left villages with inadequate infrastructure or disaster readiness, escalating risks to lives and property [34]. Therefore, this multi-scale research on historical evolution within the watershed can guide effective measures for regional sustainable development and dual carbon goals.

The study of landscape patterns in traditional villages can be conducted from different perspectives [35], such as settlement morphology [36], historical, and human geography [37], in order to understand the historical evolution and landscape ecology and provide guidance for rural environmental protection [38]. Researchers can focus on site selection, distribution, patterns, and changes in traditional villages, considering factors such as historical culture and socioeconomic influences [39,40,41]. Based on the findings of these studies, several protective measures, inheritance strategies, and planning and design recommendations have been proposed. The spatial patterns of rural settlements reflect the relationship between humans and the environment, as well as the connections between ecology, production, and daily life, which can be observed across various spatiotemporal scales [42,43]. Currently, academic research primarily focuses on the dynamic spatial patterns of rural landscapes [22]. The study of dynamic evolution of landscape patterns is supported by predictive and scientific theories [14,44]. Therefore, by analyzing the changing patterns of landscapes, researchers can predict and understand future trends [38]. Studying the evolution of landscape patterns at different scales can provide a deeper understanding of regional ecosystem changes, land-use changes, and impact of human activities on the environment [17,45,46]. Therefore, for village watershed landscape patterns, this study aimed to investigate the landscape pattern characteristics of traditional villages under various temporal scales, dimensions, and influencing factor conditions using spatiotemporal analysis methods. This will contribute to the development of more effective strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation, protection of ecological environments, promotion of sustainable development, and enhancement of regional resilience and adaptability [47].

This study explored the spatiotemporal evolution of landscape patterns using remote sensing (RS), geographic information system (GIS) technology, landscape pattern index (LPI), and spatiotemporal data analysis (SDA) in the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River Basin. The objective of this study was to explore the human–land coupling evolution relationships based on a novel 3D model, using three spatial scales, temporal scales, and variables. We aimed to propose valuable guidance for regional planning and development. We believe this study reveals significant insights into the dynamics of traditional village landscapes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The Yellow River is the second-longest river in China and is an important birthplace for Chinese culture and civilization. It flows through nine provinces and regions—namely, Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, and Shandong, before entering the Bohai Sea. The total area of the Yellow River Basin exceeds 750,000 km². The Jinshaan Gorge is located in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and is a representative and relatively isolated unit of human geography. It begins at the mouth of a river in Inner Mongolia and extends south to Yumenkou in Shanxi, serving as a natural administrative boundary between Shanxi and Shaanxi. The Shanxi and Shaanxi regions of the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River include 7 cities and 41 counties, with a total area of 111,600 km², length of 726 km, drop of 607 m, and riverbed width of 200–400 m. This area is one of the birthplaces of Chinese civilization and agrarian culture (Figure 1) [48,49].

As of 2023, there were 8155 nationally recognized traditional villages in China. Through GIS analysis, 987 traditional villages were found along the Yellow River Basin, and 114 traditional villages in the Jinshaan Gorge, including 84 on the Shanxi side and 30 on the Shaanxi side. Traditional villages are mainly distributed in Jiaxian and Linxian of Shanxi, where there are 26 traditional villages, accounting for 22.8% of the total number of traditional villages in the Jinshaan Gorge [49,50].

2.2. Materials

Obtaining detailed and continuous data from the same platform is challenging. Therefore, this study integrated data from multiple sources. The data in this study were uniformly used in the GCS_WGS_1984 coordinate system and converted to a 30 m × 30 m grid for spatial calculations using ArcGIS 10.8. The land-use data for different years in the study area were sourced from the land-use status RS monitoring data of China from 1980 to 2020, provided by the Resource and Environmental Science Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (https://www.resdc.cn, accessed on 20 May 2023) with an accuracy of 30 m.

For updating the land-use data (1:50,000 scale), roads, and rivers in the study area based on the third national land survey database of 2019, RS image data (http://www.gscloud.cn/, accessed on 20 May 2023) were used by visual interpretation method. The administrative boundary data used in the study were also sourced from the Third National Land Survey Database of 2019. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data used in the research were sourced from the Advanced Land Observing Satellite-1 with a spatial resolution of 12.5 m (https://search.asf.alaska.edu/#/, accessed on 20 May 2023).

Various fundamental geographic information was obtained: data for the study area were obtained from the Public Security Bureau in Jiaxian and Linxian (as of December 2021), and socioeconomic data were acquired from the Natural Resources Bureau in Jiaxian and Linxian (as of December 2021). After processing, these datasets were linked to vector data to establish a basic research database.

2.3. Research Framework

The 3D framework established in this study investigated traditional villages of Jinshaan Gorge, as shown in Figure 2. Jiaxian and Linxian, traditional villages of a typical area of Jinshaan Gorge in the Yellow River Basin, were examined to explore the process of landscape pattern change from 1980 to 2020. At the macro scale, we examined the interaction between traditional villages in Jiaxian and Linxian and their external environment over time, observing the natural ecological evolution process in typical area of the Jinshaan Gorge. This process shaped the natural ecological pattern. On the meso scale, we studied the socio-economic evolution process of traditional villages in relation to their natural environment over time, resulting in the formation of production and trade patterns. On the micro scale, we investigated the internal structural evolution process of traditional villages over time, which shaped the pattern of human facilities. This study indicated that the spatial landscape patterns exhibit temporal and spatial spatiotemporal regularities. The three types of spatial evolutions form an orderly system, where spatial processes interact with spatial patterns.

2.4. Research Methods

This study quantitatively analyzed the characteristics and trends of spatiotemporal changes by using SDA, GIS, RS and LPI. Geographically, SDA can be used for quantitative analysis of the spatiotemporal evolution in specific regions, quantifying multiscale spatiotemporal analysis into a system. LPI is commonly used in academia for the quantitative analysis of landscape patterns and trends [51,52,53]. These indices can reflect the degree of human interference in the ecological environment [54,55]. In land use and ecological planning research, LPI serves as a quantitative indicator that help researchers more accurately assess the current state and changing trends of the ecological environment. This can enable the development of more scientifically sound land use and ecological planning schemes [56,57,58].

2.4.1. SDA in Geography

Spatiotemporal data are the observed values of spatiotemporal variables obtained through one or multiple observations. Analyses that involve spatiotemporal data as inputs or outputs are referred to as spatiotemporal analyses. The goal of spatiotemporal analysis is to use statistics and mathematics to study the observed samples and infer the parameters and characteristics of a population or superpopulation. This allows us to understand the patterns, processes, rules, and mechanisms of geographical phenomena, and provide warnings and predictions [59].

The research object of the spatiotemporal analysis was spatiotemporal data. All environmental, economic, and social phenomena have geographical spatial distributions (s) that vary over time (t) and are observed and recorded as spatiotemporal data [59,60,61]. The notation y(s, t) represents spatiotemporal data or spatiotemporal variables.

Variable theory originates from mathematics and statistics [59]. The data or variable y(s, t) can represent natural environmental factors such as rivers, elevation, and slope, or economic and social factors such as population, gross domestic product (GDP), transportation, and culture factors. Multi-year land-use data and the fundamental geographic information were quantitatively analyzed and integrated using SDA methods. These variables can be expressed as ratios, intervals, ordinals, or nominals.

(1)

Spatial variables (s): Spatial variable attributes exhibit spatial differentiation and either remain stable or are not time-resolved; that is, y(s, t) = y(s). Examples include village distribution and site selection, which can be analyzed using spatial analysis methods.

(2)

Temporal variables (t): Attribute homogeneity in space or the absence of spatial differences; that is, y(s, t) = y(t). An example is the annual resident population change in a village, which can be analyzed using time-series analysis methods.

(3)

Spatiotemporal variables: Spatiotemporal variable attributes change both spatially and temporally, that is y(s + u, t + i) ≠ y(s, t). Examples include the changing trends of regional human–environment relationships over space and time, which can be analyzed using spatiotemporal analysis methods.

(4)

State variables: When the attribute value changes to a certain extent, a qualitative change occurs from the quantitative change, indicating a change in the state or type. The state variables reflect patterns, rules, and trends. Land use types may change because of urbanization, and the industrial types and development stages of a region may also evolve.

2.4.2. Spatiotemporal Analysis Based on RS and GIS

This study was based on remote sensing images and data and used spatial analysis methods to conduct research and analysis. The aim was to obtain accurate data for the scientific investigation of spatial patterns, spatial distribution, and settlement site se-lection. This study was conducted using the spatial analysis module in ArcGIS 10.2 based on an abundance of data and information, such as multi-year land-use data, DEM, RS image, the third national land survey database of 2019 and the fundamental geographic information [53,62].

2.4.3. LPI Analysis Based on Fragstats

Using Fragstats 4.2 software, various landscape indices were calculated to obtain index data for the macroecological landscape in the Jinshaan Gorge [63,64]. The spatiotemporal evolution of landscape patterns was analyzed [40], multi-year land-use data were subjected to LPI analysis using Fragstats.

(1)

Patch Density Index

The patch density (PD) index represents the density of a particular patch within a region and indicates the overall heterogeneity, fragmentation, and degree of fragmentation of a specific type. This reflects the heterogeneity on a per-unit area basis within a landscape.

$$PD=\frac{NP}{A}$$

(1)

where NP represents the number of patches, measured in units of; A denotes the total area of the landscape or patches, measured in hectares; PD represents the patch density, measured in units per hectare.

(2)

Landscape Diversity Index (Shannon’s Diversity Index, SHDI)

Shannon’s Diversity Index (SHDI) reflects landscape heterogeneity and emphasizes the contribution of rare patch types to overall information. As land use diversified and fragmented, the calculated SHDI values increased. In the context of landscape ecosystems, there is a relationship between biodiversity and species diversity; however, it does not follow a simple proportional relationship. In general, the correlation between the two tended to follow a normal distribution.

$$SHDI=-{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{\mathrm{m}}(P_i\ast \ln P_i)}$$

(2)

where m is * the total number of patches in the landscape, and P_i denotes the proportion of landscape occupied by patch type i.

(3)

Landscape fragmentation indices

The fragmentation index represents the degree of fragmentation within a landscape and reflects the complexity of its spatial structure. A higher landscape fragmentation index indicated a greater degree of fragmentation within the study area. This typically signifies the intensification of disturbances affecting the research subject, which may have negative implications for the ecological environment. The formula used is as follows:

$$C_i=N_i/A_i$$

(3)

where, C_i represents the fragmentation of region I, N_i denotes the number of patches in region i, and. A_i represents the total area of region i.

D Models for Quantitative Conservation and Development

This study constructed a model to investigate the evolution of landscape patterns in traditional villages of Jinshaan Gorge, based on multi-temporal, multi-spatial, and muti-variable evolutionary processes using three spatial scales, temporal scales, and sustainability variables (Figure 3). Together, they form a dynamic and quantitative system which can be used to propose strategies for sustainable conservation and development in traditional villages.

3. Results and Analysis

3.1. Macro-Level Evolution of Environmental Patterns and Spatial Distribution in Traditional Villages

3.1.1. Trend of Pattern Evolution

Seven different years were selected as the temporal scales, namely 1980, 1990, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020, to investigate the macro-level spatial pattern evolution in the Jinshaan Gorge. Based on this research, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6 were created to visually analyze the evolution trends of various land uses from 1980 to 2020. The total area of all land use types combined was 5009.50 km². In 2012, China officially announced the first batch of 646 nationally recognized traditional villages with significant conservation value. Among these identified traditional villages, 8 of them were located within the study area. Therefore, in the research, the appearance of Chinese traditional villages in 2015 corresponds to the inclusion of these villages in the national list in 2012, and this data point became a significant reference for studying the spatiotemporal evolution of the landscape patterns in the study area and its connection to human–land coupling (Figure 4).

By comparing the data in Figure 4 across different years, the area of urban and rural construction land consistently increased throughout the study period, whereas the areas of arable land, forest land, and water bodies continuously decreased. This trend indicated that human economic activity has reached a level of natural resource exploitation.

As shown in Figure 5, over 40 years, the area of arable and forest land decreased, indicating the conversion of the original arable and forest land into urban and rural construction land. This reflects the trend of land-use evolution in the Jinshaan Gorge region of the Yellow River Basin.

The visual analysis in Figure 6 showed the processes and trends of land-use conversion between different years. Rural residential areas have consistently increased over time, with expansion primarily sourced from arable land, grassland, and forest land. However, there was a sharp decrease in arable land area from 2005 to 2010. The conversion of arable land, grassland, and woodland into rural residential areas cumulatively accounted for 0.42%, indicating a significant influencing factor in the land evolution of rural residential areas.

3.1.2. Diversity LPI Analysis

The diversity index represents the complexity and variability of the different patches in the landscape of the study area. It was calculated using formula (2) in Fragstats v4.2.1, and the analysis results are shown. A comparative analysis of the landscape pattern indices is shown in Figure 7. The overall landscape pattern indices in the study area showed an increasing trend, indicating increased diversity and fragmentation along the main stem of the Yellow River. The area of rural residential settlements has consistently increased, with growth areas originating from plowlands, grasslands, and woodlands. It can be clearly seen that the period from 2005 to 2010 is the turning point of LPI.

3.1.3. Spatial Distribution and Site Selection Characteristics of Traditional Villages

The river water system and slope direction were the main factors influencing the site selection of traditional village settlements. The relationship between these factors and the spatial distribution and site selection characteristics of traditional village settlements in the study area is demonstrated in Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10.

The relationship with the water system is significant (Figure 8). Based on the size of their drainage areas and the scale of water flow, water systems can be divided into three types, that is, the main stream of the Yellow River, major tributaries, and minor tributaries. The study revealed that there are 17 traditional villages within a 5 km range along the main stream of the Yellow River, with the highest concentration and largest number of villages found within the 0–1 km range. Along the major tributaries within a 5 km range, there are 16 traditional villages, with 7 villages (43.75% of the total) clustered within the 0–1 km range, while only one village is present in the 3–4 km buffer zone. In the areas located 2.5 km away from small tributaries, there are 13 traditional villages, with 6 villages (50.00% of the total) distributed within the 0–0.5 km range, showing the highest proportion. The statistical data indicate that the closer the villages are to the river channel, the more traditional villages there are, illustrating a trend of villages’ preference for proximity to water and a greater tendency to be distributed along the main stream of the Yellow River. The number of traditional villages in each buffer zone decreases with the increasing distance from the river channel. Areas closer to water sources are more convenient for supplying water and irrigation. This indicates a close correlation between site selection and the layout of traditional villages and networks of waterways and rivers.

The relationship with elevation was significant. Traditional villages are located at lower elevations with relatively gentle slopes. This is determined by long-standing customs, agricultural practices, the need for water supply, and survival.

The relationship with slope is significant. Traditional villages tend to be located on slopes within the range of 5–15°. When integrated with the natural landscape, most villages choose an “ideal spatial” form that represents harmonious integration with the surrounding mountains and waters. This allows adaptive adjustments under different circumstances.

3.2. Medium-Scale Evolution of Landscape Space in Traditional Villages

At the mesoscopic scale, the research focused on the traditional villages and surrounding landscapes in Jiaxian by using SDA, GIS, and the RS method.

3.2.1. Settlement System

At the mesoscopic scale, this study has focused on traditional villages in Jiaxian. Mountain cave dwellings are architectural structures that make full use of the terrain and environment. They can adapt to different terrain and slopes while providing insulation, shading, and rain protection. This type of structure minimizes land use and development, preserves the environment, and meets the residential requirements of barren areas. Traditional cave-dwelling construction typically involves cement-mortar plastering, wooden doors and windows, paper windows, and stone windowsills.

Table 1. Distribution of settlement patterns in traditional villages of Jiaxian.

Main Factors	Secondary Factors	Descriptions	Score
Mountain	Upper	On the mountain top	1
	Middle	In the mountains	2
	Lower	On the slopes of the mountains	3
River	Nearly	Along the waterfront	3
	Middle	Near water/view of water	2
	Far	Far from the water	1
Road	Highway	Highway	1
	Main road	Main Road	2
	Secondary road	Secondary Road	3
Cultural relics	Nearly	Adjacent	3
	Middle	Accessible	2
	Far	Scenic/viewable	1

provides a systematic approach to classify and evaluate the positions of different settlement systems based on their distances to mountains, rivers, roads, and cultural relics in the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River Basin. The scores in the table represent the magnitude of influence that various factors in the Jinshaan Gorge have on the distribution of traditional village settlement systems. A higher score indicates a stronger impact of the corresponding factor on the distribution of traditional villages. This scoring system offers a valuable method for the analysis and decision-making process related to traditional villages, as illustrated in Figure 11. From the figure, we can observe that the settlements of Mudiuyu Village, Heyeping Village, and Nihegou Village are more influenced by the main stream of the Yellow River Basin, while the settlements of Zhuguanzhai Village and Chiniuyao Village are less influenced by the main stream of the Yellow River Basin.

At the mesoscopic scale, this study focused on traditional villages in Jiaxian. Mountain cave dwellings are architectural structures that make full use of the terrain and environment. They can adapt to different terrain and slopes while providing insulation, shade, and rain protection. This type of structure minimizes land use and development, preserves the environment, and meets the residential requirements of barren areas. Traditional cave-dwelling construction typically involves cement-mortar plastering, wooden doors and windows, paper windows, and stone windowsills.

Table 1 provides a systematic approach to classify and evaluate the positions of different settlement systems based on their distances to mountains, rivers, roads, and cultural relics in the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River Basin. The scores in the table represent the magnitude of influence that various factors in the Jinshaan Gorge have on the distribution of traditional village settlement systems. A higher score indicates a stronger impact of the corresponding factor on the distribution of traditional villages. This scoring system offers a valuable method for the analysis and decision-making process related to traditional villages, as illustrated in Figure 11. We can observe that the settlements of Mudiuyu Village, Heyeping Village, and Nihegou Village are more influenced by the main stream of the Yellow River Basin, while the settlements of Zhuguanzhai and Chiniuyao Villages are less influenced by the main stream of the Yellow River Basin.

Taking the evolution of Nihegou as an example, this study focused on the evolutionary characteristics of the settlements (Figure 12). Grasslands have the highest proportion, followed by cultivated land, both of which have been continuously increasing. Although residential land has gradually increased, there has been a substantial population loss and vacant housing (Figure 13). The government currently advocates for tourism development and the construction of guesthouses to increase income, which is beneficial for the development of traditional villages.

3.2.2. Water Management System

The Jinshaan Gorge region is surrounded by water but faces challenges in terms of water supply. However, the relationship between water and the Loess Plateau is inseparable because agricultural crops on the Loess Plateau require water irrigation facilities to increase productivity. Along the main channel of the Jinshaan Gorge, traditional water conservancy projects in the villages include “Menggulu”, a type of underground channel for diverting water, “Daohong”, a type of water collection device, diversion dams, and downstream dams. Water conservation systems play crucial roles in the management and distribution of water resources for agricultural purposes.

3.2.3. Agricultural System

The primary cereal crops in the Jinshaan Gorge region are sorghum, millet, corn, and wheat. The economically important crops include red dates and mountain apples. With improvements in production capacity and economic level, the variety of agricultural crops has expanded. Agricultural cultivation has become more mechanized and efficient, leading to the development of agricultural production parks and production bases. Crops grown in floodplains and mountainous areas complement each other, forming self-sustaining, small-scale agricultural economies and complete ecological cycles.

Planting on the floodplains of the Yellow River. This involves the use of flat and fertile land formed through the erosion and deposition of sediment carried by rivers. In the Jinshaan Gorge, villagers often choose flat, fertile floodplains for crop cultivation. The floodplains are not only planted with jujube trees but are also mixed with various other crops, such as Chinese cabbage, leek, eggplant, green beans, potatoes, corn, mung beans, pumpkin, sweet potatoes, and peanuts. In Nihegou, floodplain cultivation follows a more traditional form; however, it has been scaled up. In Renjiapan, there has been a shift in planting modes driven by tourism-oriented consumption. In Qikou Ancient Town, floodplain cultivation has become more industrialized and scaled up. Aquaculture ponds are less common and follow a more traditional pattern of pond farming (Figure 14).

Terraced cultivation in terrace fields and gullies involves planting crops on the terraced slopes of hills and mountains. It uses the natural step-like structure of the terrain to cultivate dryland crops such as millet and sorghum at different heights. This planting technique not only saves arable land but also efficiently uses rainfall and irrigation water resources. It helps to increase crop yield and quality by optimizing water distribution and preventing soil erosion.

3.2.4. Cultural Landscape System

The cultural landscape elements in Jiaxian showcase the rich historical and evolving features of the tangible and intangible cultural heritage. They reflect the changes in the lives, beliefs, and thoughts of the Jiaxian people. This study has categorized tangible cultural heritage sites in Jinshaan Gorge into three types: religious and ritual landscapes, residential and folk customs landscapes, and red cultural landscapes. Meanwhile, the Jinshaan Gorge has a rich history and culture and possesses abundant intangible cultural heritage. This includes the spirit of struggle, river transportation, religious beliefs, revolutionary spirit, and traditional culture in the form of folk activities, music, storytelling, and traditional arts and crafts.

This study has highlighted the prominent scenic spots in Jiaxian and collected the latest click-through data from a tourism website sourced from the official website of the Jiaxian People’s Government (

Table 2. Tangible cultural landscapes in Jiaxian.

Category	Location	Cultural Landscape	Era	Click Count
Religious Ceremonies	Jiaxian	Burner Temple, Yunyan Temple	Ming Dynasty	5768
	Renjiapan	Baiyun Mountain Taoist Temple	Song Dynasty	10,895
	Nihegou	Buddhist Hall Temple	Song Dynasty	1586
	Tanjiaping	Church	Modern Times	1836
Residential Folk Customs	Chiniugua	Cave Dwelling Architecture	Ming and Qing Dynasty	8818
	Wangjiashan	Stone Cave Dwellings	Contemporary Era	8440
	Heyeping	Thousand-Hole Kilns	Ming and Qing Dynasty	2106
	Nihegou	Millennial Jujube Orchard, Ancient Ferry	Before the Yuan Dynasty	5740
	Yukou	Art Town	Contemporary Era	4659
	Mutouyu	Ancient Residences, Ancient Opera Stage	Ming and Qing Dynasty	2879
Red Culture	Zhangzhuang	Li Youyuan’s Former Residence	Modern Times	2215
	Shenquanbao	Revolutionary Sites, Revolutionary Cultural Relics	Modern Times	2514

). The Baiyun Mountain Daoist Temple is one of the most famous attractions. Residential and folk custom landscapes were more popular among visitors. Historical sites from the Song, Ming, and Qing Dynasties have enjoyed considerable popularity because of their ancient origins. However, some modern attractions have high click-through rates, which may be attributed to factors such as effective marketing, convenient transportation, and well-developed facilities.

3.3. Micro-Level Evolution of Human Landscape Elements in Traditional Villages

3.3.1. Building Spatial Landscape Element Analysis

Mountain cave dwellings are architectural structures that make full use of the terrain and environment. They can be adapted to different terrain and slopes while providing insulation, shading, and rain protection. This type of structure minimizes land use and development, preserves the environment, and meets the residential requirements of barren areas. Traditional cave-dwelling construction typically involves cement-mortar plastering, wooden doors and windows, paper windows, and stone windowsills.

Over time, traditional construction methods such as mountain cave dwellings have gradually failed to meet people’s residential requirements, and flatland houses have become more popular. However, the architectural features and layouts of the traditional villages were preserved and inherited. In some traditional villages, buildings remain an economic resource, attracting many tourists for sightseeing and exploration.

Mountain cave and flatland houses have different construction patterns (

Table 3. Cave dwelling built close to the mountain.

Type	Analysis
Illustration
Enclosure Degree	10%	50%	70%
Illustration
Enclosure Degree	80%	90%	95%

and

Table 4. Cave dwelling depending on the mountain.

Type	Analysis
Illustration
Enclosure Degree	10%	50%	95%

). Mountain cave dwellings with smaller enclosures have simpler structures, smaller sizes, lower privacy, and less desirable living experiences. In contrast, cave dwellings with stronger enclosures in their courtyards provide higher privacy and a sense of security but may hinder neighborly interactions.

The streets and lanes of traditional villages in the Jinshaan Gorge region have been shaped by local production, living requirements, and natural geographical conditions (

Table 5. Analysis of street types in Jiaxian.

Type	Analysis
Schematic
Photos
H/L	0.2	0.75	2.5
Enclosure	Weak	Moderate	Strong

). Therefore, they exhibit differences in spatial scale, form, and sense of passage. In general, streets and lanes in the traditional villages of Jinshaan Gorge can be classified into three types: open, semi-open, and enclosed. When the width-to-height ratio of a street or lane is relatively high, it creates a sense of oppression, facilitates rapid passage, and lacks important scenery. Conversely, a low width-to-height ratio provides a sense of openness, allows leisure stops, and offers pleasant views.

3.3.2. Evolution Analysis of Landscape Elements in Human Space

The humanistic landscape space in Jinshaan Gorge includes nodal and plaza spaces that are important places for village life and social activities. They serve as significant avenues for preserving and promoting traditional local culture.

Square space refers to public spaces within traditional villages used for community gatherings, activities, and interactions. They serve as an important platform for showcasing traditional culture, history, and art. Taking the typical mountain cave village of Chiniugua as an example, the square space in this traditional village is located at the center and surrounded by mountain cave dwellings, forming a unique enclosed spatial form, as shown in Figure 15a–c. The nodal spaces in the traditional villages of Jinshaan Gorge are important cultural heritage sites that represent the rich history and cultural heritage of the area. These spaces include various elements, such as theater stages, ceremonial sites, ancient wells, ancient docks, and ancient bridges (Figure 15d).

As time passes and society undergoes changes, the functions of traditional nodal and square spaces in the Jinshaan Gorge have also evolved. Some traditional nodal spaces have become difficult to protect, use, and have lost their original functions. However, some squares have been revitalized by incorporating modern needs and have gained vitality.

4. Discussion

The significant changes in the basin pattern are closely related to global climate change, which is particularly evident in major river basins and civilizations, such as the ancient Nile River Basin [65], the Yellow River Basin [44], etc. [28,66,67,68]. Studying the spatiotemporal relationships between humans and the environment in the Yellow River Basin has valuable implications for research on global major river basins [69]. In general, there is still room for improvement in the quantitative analysis of the human–land relationship in the context of the spatiotemporal evolution of the Yellow River Basin. To date, there has been a lack of quantitative research on the landscape patterns of traditional villages in the representative area of Jinshaan Gorge within the Yellow River Basin. Building on previous research, this study delves into the changes in landscape patterns of traditional villages under the influence of water environments. Before 1996, research on the relationship between traditional villages and the water environment was primarily descriptive [13,70]. However, in the 21st century, research methods have predominantly relied on field investigations, with research analysis conducted through on-site recordings and photographs supplemented with the literature data [5]. Since 2009, the conservation and development of traditional villages has attracted widespread attention, and the scope of has expanded from a relatively narrow focus on Jiangnan [39] and Huizhou villages to include regions in the northwest [71,72], southwest [7,26], Lingnan [73], and major river basins [12,13,14,38]. A systematic analysis of the spatial structure of water and environmental elements at various levels in villages has become a major focus during this stage [22].Research methods have evolved to include field surveys and the application of geographic information systems (GISs) [17,23,35,74]. Most previous research used remote sensing (RS), GIS, and other methods to investigate the distribution characteristics and trends of rural settlements [75,76]. Firstly, the spatial patterns of rural settlements in a specific region at a given time are typically larger [77]. Secondly, longitudinal comparisons were performed at different time points. Thirdly, horizontal comparisons analyzed diverse spatial contexts, examining settlement patterns across various regions formed over extended time periods at the same point in time [78]. The fourth type involves studying the evolution of three-dimensional (3D) landscape spatial patterns at different spatiotemporal scales [57,79,80,81], which represent current research trends and hotspots. Therefore, this study has employed the fourth type and innovated a 3D modeling approach, combined with GIS and RS analysis to conduct a multi-scale dynamic evolution study of rural landscape characteristics, achieving a certain level of methodological innovation. Building upon the groundwork laid by earlier scholars, this study introduces the utilization of GIS, RS, SDA, and LPI analysis. Using these methods, the study delves into the dynamic multi-scale processes of spatiotemporal-variable parameters in rural contexts. The methods used in this study can address these problems and are also applicable to major river basins worldwide [82,83].

In this study based on integrating the spatiotemporal-variable based on GIS and RS method, we found that the human–land relationship in the Yellow River Basin evolves over time and is influenced by both natural and human factors, which may be positive or negative. Regarding the macro process, the distribution of traditional villages in the Yellow River Basin has been strongly influenced by mountainous and water environments, whereas the impact of roads was relatively small. Previous global studies on the distribution of villages in the basin identified roads, rivers, and topography as the main factors affecting village placement [20,84,85]. However, through an analysis of the Jinshaan Gorge area in the Yellow River Basin, it was found that the influence of roads on village siting in this region is relatively limited. In ancient times, the prosperous development of the Jinshaan Gorge area was primarily attributed to its geographical location and water transportation [13,86]. With the increase in land-based transportation in other regions, the high-cost water transportation economy in the Jinshaan Gorge area has gradually declined. However, in recent years, the construction of the Along-the-Yellow River Highway has alleviated the development dilemma caused by the decline in water transportation, bringing opportunities for industrial revival to traditional villages in the Jinshaan Gorge of the Yellow River Basin. Regarding the meso process, the architectural structure and layout of mountain-built cave dwellings also reflect the residents’ philosophy of adapting to the terrain, making use of local conditions, and harmoniously coexisting with nature as a part of their cultural heritage. The production and livelihoods in traditional villages in the Yellow River Basin have progressed with the development of productivity and production materials. Substantial research has indicated that in ancient times, the mountainous terrain and the scarcity of arable land posed challenges for agriculture [5,6,20,29,87] in the Jinshaan Gorge area of the Yellow River Basin. In addition, riverbanks are frequently affected by floods, which exacerbate economic losses for the local population [88,89]. However, after flooding disasters, riverbanks would form fertile and leveled riverbeds, prompting villagers to choose to cultivate crops in the Yellow River floodplain [84,90]. Additionally, effective water management techniques have been developed in the struggle against flood disasters and are still in use. With the support of advanced technologies and the promotion of the agricultural cooperation model of “government + enterprises + universities + villagers”, the productivity level has substantially improved. Regarding the micro process, with time and social change, the functions of certain places have undergone transformation. Some traditional nodes have lost their original function because of difficulties in preservation and use. Meanwhile, some squares have been revitalized to meet modern needs and have become vibrant spaces.

Improvements in the ecological environment have considerable implications for the protection and development of traditional villages in Yellow River Basin with global warming and urbanization. Through comparative analysis using LPI method, it was observed that the diversity index of the Jiaxian to Linxian section in the Jinshaan Gorge continuously increased, indicating a gradual improvement in the ecological environment and enhancement of landscape diversity. This finding aligns with those of previous studies on the ecological environment of the Yellow River Basin [21,79,91,92,93]. Furthermore, improving the ecological environment has multifaceted impacts on traditional villages, including enhancing landscape quality, promoting cultural heritage preservation, and fostering community development. Therefore, strengthening environmental protection and management is essential. By harnessing internet technology, high-quality and sustainable development of traditional villages can be facilitated while preserving their unique cultural heritage value [93,94].

In the process of the landscape spatial pattern evolution of traditional villages in Jinshaan Gorge, various factors, such as historical context, land use, and landscape pattern changes, interact with each other, showcasing evolution in the dimensions of the environment at the macroscale, society and economy at the mesoscale, and humanity at the microscale based on SDA method. In most parts of the Yellow River Basin, the economy is underdeveloped, and the issues surrounding the villages in the Jinshaan Gorge, such as the lack of diversified protection and marginalization of cultural landscapes, are prominent. This study provided a quantitative analysis of the human–land relationship and analyzed its long-term evolution, which is beneficial for addressing planning and design solutions. To promote rural ecological conservation and economic development, the Chinese government has successively proposed policies such as the “Rural Revitalization Strategy” and the “Two Mountains” theory [36,47,94]. The results of this study offer policy support. From the perspective of social benefits, it is essential to explore the development process of traditional villages, protect and inherit cultural heritage over thousands of years, and infuse them with new vitality in modern society, which will contribute to the inheritance of national culture and legacy.

Prior studies on the traditional spatial water environments of river basins have some limitations. Firstly, there is still considerable potential for exploring the commonalities and differences in the spatial patterns of the water environment of traditional villages at different spatiotemporal scales. A greater number of qualitative and descriptive studies have been conducted. Secondly, in terms of research methods, there is a lack of extensive data collection and analysis, including images, to support specific village studies. Finally, early research on the spatial patterns of the water environment mainly focused on spatial elements, and evolved into systematic analyses at the macro, meso, and micro levels. However, there is a need for further exploration of the internal spatial elements and connections between various spatial components. In addition, research on the spatial structure and layout of water environments in river basins is mostly in the analytical stage and has not yet been systematically summarized. To date, there has been limited research on the landscape patterns of traditional villages in the Jinshaan Gorge area, a representative region within the Yellow River Basin, and a mature research paradigm has not yet been established. Therefore, this study has innovatively undertaken an exploration of the evolving characteristics of human–environment relationships in the Yellow River Basin, using traditional villages as a case study.

Accelerated socioeconomic development and urbanization have disrupted some natural landscapes, settlements, and cultural spaces. However, they are simultaneously undergoing a continuous transformation to adapt to the demands of the new century. This study proposed a dynamic 3D model that is widely applicable to the quantitative analysis of spatial patterns under the influence of human–land relationships in the Yellow River Basin. Furthermore, it also holds certain reference value for the quantitative exploration of spatiotemporal patterns of human–land relationships in global watershed environments.

5. Conclusions

From the perspective of quantifying the human–land relationship and addressing sustainable development, research on the spatiotemporal evolution of the Yellow River Basin is of considerable importance. Traditional villages are intricately linked to their surrounding landscapes and have been facing challenges due to complex urbanization, global climate change, and extreme disasters. In this study, we conducted a novel 3D analysis of landscape pattern evolution in traditional villages of the Jinshaan Gorge, Yellow River Basin, to understand their dynamics and guide effective strategies for sustainable development.

Additionally, based on SDA, LPI, GIS, and RS analysis, the landscape diversity increased over time, indicating an improvement in the ecological environment. However, the landscape fragmentation index also increased, indicating an increase in landscape disturbance and negative impacts. Over 40 years, there has been increasing awareness of ecological conservation in the Jinshaan Gorge area of the Yellow River Basin. The period from 2005 to 2010 marked a turning point in ecological awareness and conservation efforts.

The human–landscape relationship of traditional villages in the Yellow River Basin’s Jinshaan Gorge area continuously evolves over time, influenced by both natural and human factors based on SDA and GIS analysis. The distribution of traditional villages in the main stem basin of the Yellow River is strongly correlated with mountainous and water environments, whereas the influence of roads is limited.

There has been a shift in the roles of settlements, water management, and agricultural systems in supporting and promoting the socioeconomic development of traditional villages in Jinshaan Gorge, both in the past and in the present. Traditional settlements have transformed from primarily serving residential functions to tourist attractions. Water management and transportation systems have evolved from being crucial hubs in the past to being utilized for tourism activities and as tourist destinations. Agricultural fields have transitioned from providing low productivity to high efficiency.

Future research should continue to improve and optimize this model, exploring more innovative methods to further explore the human–landscape relationship of traditional villages. This ongoing exploration will promote their valuable guidance globally for regional planning, cultural heritage preservation, sustainable development, and the pursuit of the “double carbon” goal.