1. Introduction
While urbanization promotes economic development, it also brings urban dilemmas such as environmental pollution, the heat-island effect, and mental health crises (depression, anxiety, etc.). In 2019, a survey on the prevalence of mental disorders in China revealed that the lifetime prevalence of various mental diseases (excluding dementia) in the population over 18 years old was 16.57% [
1]. The natural environment in the city, such as greenways, parks, scenic spots, etc., has been widely investigated and recognized as the key to improving the mental restoration of residents by reducing fatigue [
1,
2,
3], regulating mood [
4,
5], and restoring attention [
6,
7]. Compared to mental health, which refers to the overall level of well-being, mental restoration usually measures transient stress recovery [
8] and attention restoration [
9].
A growing number of studies have concluded that exposure to nature will promote mental restoration [
10,
11]. Characteristics of natural environments such as green visibility [
12], water space [
13], quality of facilities [
14], richness of species, etc. [
15,
16,
17], have been proven to have direct effects on mental restoration. In addition, the restorative effects of the environment are also associated with demographic characteristics of people, e.g., age, gender, education background, etc. Moreover, existing studies have concluded that visitors’ physical activity, social cohesion, satisfaction, as well as place attachment are the primary pathways linking the natural environment and people’s mental restoration, especially place attachment, whose mediating role cannot be underestimated [
18,
19]. This refers to an individual’s strong emotional connection to a particular place or environment, usually arising from a comparative experience, and can be developed through long-term interaction [
20]. The realization of mental restoration relies on the perception of the natural environment [
21,
22].
In fact, natural environments are not only perceived based on visual factors, but also through sounds in t nature [
23,
24]. Sound also has an impact on mental restoration [
24]. The rhythms in natural sounds may be therapeutic and help to restore stress [
25,
26]. In addition, music inventions can reduce a patient’s pain and anxiety [
27], while environmental noise such as transportation noise, human noise (i.e., sleeping disturbance), may increase heart disease, diabetes, obesity, anxiety and depression [
28].
Moreover, our senses are rarely used independently; instead, they usually function in conjunction with one another [
27,
29,
30,
31]. Several studies have shown that sound can modify the effect of visual factors on mental restoration; in other words, the effects of vision and sound on mental restoration may reinforce or interfere with each other [
18,
32,
33]. Deng et al. [
24] conducted comparative experiments regarding visual and auditory stimuli, and results suggested that participants’ feelings towards the environment changed with the different groups. Therefore, a high-quality audio-visual environment may enhance wellbeing and quality of life [
23].
A number of studies have examined the impact of visual factors (e.g., green or water space) in a natural environment on visitors’ mental restoration. Currently, most studies are concerned with the overall effect of sound (positive or negative), and few studies have examined the restorative effects of sound in different landscape settings. Taking a large-scale urban greenway as an example, this study aims to explore how audio and visual factors of the natural environment affect mental restoration. We took photos as visual materials and used four common sounds (birdsong, water, human noise, and music) of the East Lake Greenway as audio materials (see
Supplementary Materials). Moreover, we hypothesized that place attachment is a mediator between characteristics of the urban greenway and mental restoration. Results were expected to contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms behind the influence of restorative environments, and to establish reliable guidelines for city planners and landscape designers with regard to how to enhance the value of a restorative environment from the perspective of audio-visual combinations.
4. Discussion
4.1. Sound Could Alter the Effect of Visual Factors on Mental Restoration
In the ‘silence’ group, results showed that ‘plant richness’ may positively predict mental restoration. There is evidence that abundant plant species can enhance the wildlife attraction of the surrounding environment, thereby providing people with a refreshing experience, and also triggering associations with nature’s vitality, improving their mental well-being [
39,
40].
Adding birdsong to the environment can significantly improve the restorative value of the environment. Birdsong was the sound most often associated with people’s restorative experiences in nature [
41]. By evoking thoughts or perceptions associated with biodiversity, a natural environment with birdsong can attract people and promote mental restoration [
42,
43,
44,
45], and enhance their landscape perception, thereby allowing them to connect to nature and achieve restoration [
21].
In the ‘water’ group, the smaller the water area in the photo, the smaller the positive effect of underwater sound. When people hear the sound of water, they may unconsciously associate it with water. In other words, the inconsistency between visual and audio factors led to negative recovery effects. It is also worth noting that ‘water sound with water space’ is also a negative predictor. In spite of the fact that the photo depicted a water body, it was still water, such as ponds or lakes, which resulted in the visual association of the flowing water sound, thus being incongruent with the photo.
In addition, ‘human noise’ was identified as a negative predictor of the restorative value of the environment. In the ‘human noise’ group, both natural factors (‘blue vision’, ‘green vision’, ‘openness’, ‘tree and shrub area’) and artificial factors (‘pavement area’) aggravated the participants’ stress. Human noise may adversely affect people’s experience of visiting the environment, thereby hindering mental restoration [
33].
The music used in the experiment was common Chinese classical music that is commonly heard in Chinese parks, it did not change the mental restoration of people in the environment. Compared with other sounds, music is a cultural product. The influence of music depends more on demographic variables such as age, education background, etc. The diverse experience leads to the volunteers’ different understanding of music.
4.2. Place Attachment: Linking Environmental Characteristic and Mental Restoration
Results validated the idea that place attachment is a mediator linking the natural environment and mental restoration in all groups. Place attachment refers to an individual’s strong emotional connection to a particular place or environment, usually arising from comparative experience, and can be developed through long-term interaction [
20], which has also been conceptualized as a sense of place bonding, or place identity [
46,
47]. Studies have shown that place attachment has a positive effect on mental restoration [
22,
48,
49].
In all groups, place attachment is an active mediating factor, and the most obvious paths are ‘plant richness → place attachment → mental restoration’ and ‘pavement area → place attachment → mental restoration’. ‘Plant richness’ represents multiple plant arrangements, and ‘pavement area’ represents the area of hard surface area, both of which are man-made landscapes. In an environment full of natural elements, a suitable artificial landscape can effectively evoke people’s familiarity and identification with the environment, which in turn strengthens people’s mental restoration.
4.3. Application for Building a Restorative Environment
City decision makers have been trying to find effective ways to build restorative environments [
50,
51]. A significant trend has been the shift from visual dominance to a multi-sensory approach to user experience. Firstly, the combination of birdsong and landscape could enhance people’s mental restoration; thus, birdsong can be incorporated into the design of a restorative environment. Planners could apply ecological restoration and other means to construct a bird-friendly environment for attracting birdsong [
41]. Secondly, water sound does not fit all landscape features, but the combination of rich green species and water sound would make people feel restored in the environment. Therefore, water features should be designed in combination with vegetation to maximize the restorative mental value of soundscapes and landscapes. In addition, the role of “place attachment” also deserves attention. By imbuing a place with a spiritual connotation and context, landscape designers can facilitate a sense of belonging and familiarity for individuals or groups, as well as increasing positive emotions and mental restoration.
Likewise, it is worthwhile to discuss what types of audio-visual combinations should be avoided in landscape design. It is critical for landscape designers to consider the harmony and unity of sound and scenery in an environment with a waterscape. In order to improve connectivity between sound sources, they should decrease the blockage of unnecessary structures and buildings between the waterscape and people. This will eliminate the negative impact caused by the disharmony between visual and sound scenes as much as possible. In addition, human noise is unavoidable in the environment, and children are a common source of human noise. In order to minimize the negative impact of human noise on mental restoration, the natural environment can be divided into different functional areas, such as a quiet rest area, a children’s activity area, a sports activity area, and an elderly activity area, thus minimizing the disturbance of human noise.
4.4. Limitations and Future Study
Using a combination of audiovisual materials of the real environment for indoor experiments can reduce the interference of non-experimental factors such as weather and other noises. However, photographs are not a complete substitute for a full view of the actual scene. In future studies, virtual reality and other wearable devices can be considered in combination with video images to more accurately simulate the participant’s visit experience and other senses (smell, memory and touch) [
10]. In addition, other potentially restorative environments, such as roadside green spaces and community gardens, could be further discussed [
52]. For example, in a roadside green space environment, congested roads can cause psychological stress to commuters, and streets vary in noise levels due to different traffic volumes. There is a need to explore the psychological recovery of commuters as they pass along the streets, in order to improve the restorative mental benefits of roadside green spaces.
5. Conclusions
This study explored the effects of sound on mental restoration, and investigated the mediating role of place attachment between the natural environment and mental restoration. In addition, the inclusion of different sounds in the environment can have different effects on mental restoration. For example, birdsong enhances environmental recovery, water sounds work better in environments with more greenery, while human noise has a negative effect on people. In addition, a mediating role of place attachment was found, which was present in all sound scenes in this study. We also conclude with recommendations for improving the design of restorative environments. In the future, visual and auditory senses should be considered together in the design and planning of restorative environments. Based on the multisensory experience of visitors in the environment, it is reasonable to utilize audio-visual combinations in our urban environments as a viable way to provide relief from the current mental health crisis in the city.