Circulating Exosome Cargoes Contain Functionally Diverse Cancer Biomarkers: From Biogenesis and Function to Purification and Potential Translational Utility
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Extracellular Vesicles (EVs): A Journey from Discovery to Clinical Utility
3. Current Exosome Isolation Techniques—Advantages and Limitations
3.1. Ultracentrifugation-Based Isolation
3.2. Size-Based Separation and Isolation
3.3. Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) Precipitation-Based Isolation
3.4. Immunoaffinity-Based Isolation
3.5. Microfluidics-Based Isolation
3.6. Exosome Sorting by Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS)
4. Biogenesis and Function of Exosomes in Normal and Pathological Processes
4.1. Biogenesis
4.1.1. The Formation of Early Endosomes
4.1.2. The Maturation of Late Endosomes and Formation of Exosomes
4.1.3. MVB Trafficking and Exosome Release
4.2. Biological Functions of Exosomes
4.3. Alteration of Exosome Biogenesis in Tumor Cells
5. Exosomes: A Source of Tumor Biomarkers
5.1. MicroRNA Biomarkers
5.1.1. Current Technologies for Quantification of Exosomal MicroRNAs
High-Throughput Expression Analyses
Quantitative PCR (qPCR) Analyses
Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) Analysis
5.1.2. Function of MicroRNA in Cancer Exosomes
Regulation of Tumor Growth
Evasion from Host Immune Responses
Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling and Metastasis
5.2. Protein Biomarkers
5.2.1. Protein Extraction from Exosomes and EVs Prior to Analysis
5.2.2. Exosome and EV Protein Processing Approaches
Traditional Methods
Filter-Aided Sample Preparation
5.2.3. Mass Spectrometric Analysis of EV and Exosomal Proteins
Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Proteomics
5.2.4. Mass Spectrometric Analysis of EV and Exosomal Protein Modifications
5.3. Lipid Biomarkers
5.3.1. Methods for the Analysis of Lipids from Exosomes
Analysis of Intact Exosomes
Direct MS Analysis of Lipid Extracts
Indirect MS Analysis of Lipid Extracts
5.3.2. Lipidomic Profiling of Exosomes from Cancer Cells and Cancer Cell Lines
5.3.3. Lipidomic Profiling of Exosomes from Liquid Biopsies
5.3.4. Lipidomic-Specific Exosome Isolation for Use as Cancer Biomarkers
6. Concluding Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cancer Type | Differentially Expressed Between Healthy and Cancer | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|
miRNA Biomarkers | |||
Colorectal Cancer | ↑ | miR-224-5p, miR-548d-5p, miR-200a-3p, miR-320d, miR-200b-3p, miR-1246 | Tang et al., 2019 [310] |
↓ | novel_246, novel_301, miR-27a-5p | ||
miR-135a-5p, miR-204-5p | Sun et al., 2021 [104] | ||
↓ | miR-6869-5p | Yan et al., 2018 [321] | |
↑ | miR-486-5p, miR-3180-5p | Yan et al., 2017 [322] | |
↓ | miR-638, miR-5787, miR-8075, miR-6869-5p, miR-548c-5p | ||
Ovarian Cancer | ↑ | miR-21, miR-141, miR-200a, miR-200b, miR-200c, miR-203, miR-205, miR-214, miR-215 | Taylor and Taylor, 2008 [89] |
↑ | miR-940 | Chen et al., 2017 [331] | |
↑ | miR-222-3p | Ying et al., 2016 [330] | |
Glioblastoma | ↑ | let-7a, miR-15b, miR-16, miR-19b, miR-21, miR-26a, miR-27a, miR-92, miR-93, miR-320, miR-20 | Skog et al., 2008 [91] |
↑ | miR-148a | Cai et al., 2018 [346] | |
Liver Cancer | ↑ | miR-17, miR-18a, miR-19a, miR-19b, miR-20a, miR-92a-3p | Yang et al., 2020 [276] |
↑ | miR-193a-3p, miR-210-3p, miR-5100 | Zhang et al., 2019 [350] | |
Pancreatic Cancer | ↑ | miR-21, miR-210 | Wu et al., 2020 [294] |
↑ | miR-193a-3p, miR-210-3p, miR-5100 | Zhang et al., 2019 [350] | |
Lung Cancer | ↑ | miR-132-3p, miR-181b-5p, miR-27a-3p, miR-27b-3p, miR-320a, miR-361-5p, let-7b-5p, miR-24-3p, miR-3184-5p, miR-486-5p, miR-486-3p, miR-320b | Jin et al., 2017 [295] |
↓ | let-7a-5p, let-7d-5p, let-7f-5p, miR-26b-5p, miR-30a-3p, miR-30e-3p, miR-744-5p, miR-744-5p, let-7e-5p, miR-191-5p, miR-191-5p, miR-206, miR-21-5p, miR-23a-5p, miR-23b-5p, miR-10b-5p, miR-15b-5p | ||
miR-30b, miR-30c, miR-103, miR-122, miR-195, miR-203, miR-221, miR-222 | Giallombardo et al., 2016 [308] | ||
↑ | miR-193a-3p, miR-210-3p, miR-5100 | Zhang et al., 2019 [350] | |
Extranodal Natural Killer/T-Cell Lymphoma | ↑ | miR-320e, miR-4454, miR-4516, miR-630, miR-122-5p, miR-574-5p, miR-22-3p, miR-486-3p, miR-1915-5p, miR-1972, miR-1285-5p, miR-222-3p, miR-1305, miR-891b, miR-4455, miR-21-5p, miR-1258, let-7b-5p, miR-25-3p, miR-1268a | Ryu et al., 2020 [305] |
↓ | miR-564, miR-196a-5p, miR-520c-3p, let-7d-5p, let-7i-5p, miR-212-3p, miR-29a-3p, miR-608, miR-503-5p, miR-587, miR-548g-3p, miR-765, miR-34c-3p, miR-770-5p, miR-301a-5p, miR-526a, miR-340-5p, miR-325, miR-199a-3p+miR-199b-3p, miR-423-3p | ||
Prostate Cancer | ↓ | miR-196a-5p, miR-34a-5p, miR-501-3p, miR-92a-1-5p | Rodríguez et al., 2017 [309] |
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Mitchell, M.I.; Ma, J.; Carter, C.L.; Loudig, O. Circulating Exosome Cargoes Contain Functionally Diverse Cancer Biomarkers: From Biogenesis and Function to Purification and Potential Translational Utility. Cancers 2022, 14, 3350. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14143350
Mitchell MI, Ma J, Carter CL, Loudig O. Circulating Exosome Cargoes Contain Functionally Diverse Cancer Biomarkers: From Biogenesis and Function to Purification and Potential Translational Utility. Cancers. 2022; 14(14):3350. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14143350
Chicago/Turabian StyleMitchell, Megan I., Junfeng Ma, Claire L. Carter, and Olivier Loudig. 2022. "Circulating Exosome Cargoes Contain Functionally Diverse Cancer Biomarkers: From Biogenesis and Function to Purification and Potential Translational Utility" Cancers 14, no. 14: 3350. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14143350