Consumers’ Attitudes towards Differentiated Agricultural Products: The Case of Reduced-Salt Green Table Olives

Abstract

Contemporary healthy food issues and food safety concerns induce consumers to become more interested in a healthier diet such as foods reduced in salt. This study explores consumers’ behaviour, attitude, and expectations for the development of a new reduced-salt table olive product from Chalkidiki, an area of Greek. In this context, the main aim of this paper is to investigate the knowledge and attitudes of consumers about health and nutrition, reduced salt consumption, and consumption of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives. Summary statistics and multivariate analysis were performed to examine consumers’ perceptions. The results of the research highlight a remarkable consumer interest in products with reduced salt content. Furthermore, the majority are willing to purchase such foods which is a possible action that can be taken to reduce salt intake. These outcomes emphasise that producing a new reduced-salt table olive product is promising, as the interest of consumers, industries, and the research community has turned to innovative actions that add nutritional value and meet the consumers’ expectations.

1. Introduction

Table olive production has made a decisive contribution to the agricultural and processed sector of several countries around the Mediterranean basin. Table olives are important parts of the Mediterranean diet [1]. Olive fruit contains two bitter phenolic compounds, oleuropein and ligstroside, in high levels, which render the fruit inedible, and some form of processing (like fermentation) is necessary to reduce the concentration of these compounds [2].

Olive processing is one of the main agro-industrial sectors in Mediterranean countries such as Spain, Italy, and Greece [3]. Greece has a long tradition in table olive production and processing, while, recently, the table olive industry has become a significant sector of the Greek economy [4]. Greece is the second-largest producing and exporting country in the European Union [5]. One of the most important varieties cultivated in Greece, from an economic point of view, is cv. Chalkidiki for green olives [6,7].

There are three main ways of processing table olives, namely (a) the Spanish style, consisting of green olives in brine, (b) the California style, consisting of black olives in brine, and (c) the Greek style, consisting of natural black olives in brine [8]. The most widespread is the Spanish-style, in which olives are treated with a NaOH solution (salt) [9]. This process is used almost exclusively for the processing of green olives and has been studied extensively on a laboratory scale. However, large-scale studies are rather limited for each type of table olive processing [1].

Salt addition is necessary for table olives’ fermentation both for safety and flavour [10,11,12]. It is a key ingredient to delay the growth of new bacteria, control the rate of fermentation, and as a flavouring agent in the processing of table olives [13]. Table olives are fruits with high nutritional value and are proposed as functional foods [14,15]. More specifically, the concentration of a variety of lipophilic and non-lipophilic compounds affects their quality and defines them as a functional food [16].

Salt consumption is among the higher concerns of the population. This is not a new trend, as health agencies have been constantly warning people about excess salt, sugar, and carbohydrate consumption in their diet [17]. According to the WHO [18], the daily recommended salt intake should be reduced to <5 g/day of salt for adults. Salt intake at this level helps reduce blood pressure and the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and coronary heart disease. The main benefit of reducing salt intake is a corresponding reduction in high blood pressure [19].

High salt concentration is a matter that needs to be addressed. A new functional product, a reduced-salt green table olive, is very promising. Salt reduction is indeed a crucial public health concern; however, research on salt intake awareness and behaviour might not be as extensive as one might expect [20]. The problem of salt overconsumption greatly affects the entire human society. Various policies have been formulated to promote informational campaigns aimed at changing inappropriate eating habits and highlighting the need for healthy food choices and diets [21]. A strategy to achieve population-level salt reduction is the reformulation of food in markets. Predicting consumers’ reactions to reformulated foods is critical to this issue [22].

The development of healthier products, with reduced-salt content is an innovation that would improve consumers’ opinions about such products and could contribute to the reduction in daily salt intake [23]. One of the most studied variables in marketing research is consumers’ knowledge levels [24]. Consumer knowledge is an important predictor due to its strong influence on consumer behaviour when evaluating a product [25]. Other important variables regarding consumers’ segmentation are gender and age [21]. Food labels are linked with positive dietary outcomes [26] and consumers’ willingness to buy reformulated foods (e.g., reduced-salt content) at a premium price [27]. Salt reduction programs as well as awareness campaigns should take into account the level of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour of consumers. Measures taken before the implementation of a program provide an opportunity to assess the impact and effectiveness of an intervention [28].

The goal of a healthier diet is to develop strategies that can help and support consumers’ choices. The benefits of a healthier diet will occur only if consumers are willing to make long-term eating changes and if markets increase the offered variety of reduced-salt foods [19]. Some strategies to reduce salt intake in the general population may be public education, nutritional counselling, food labelling, coordinated voluntary actions, and, finally, regulation of salt levels in foods [29]. At the same time, all actions and campaigns should encourage and educate consumers to think about their salt intake [30]. Consumers’ awareness of salt intake risks would affect their decision to buy reduced-salt products [31]. Thus, the issue of salt intake with food is of great concern among the scientific community and policy makers engaged in public health strategies. Many measures are proposed in this direction by policy makers, both at the European Union and world level. Since the promotion of reduced salt in food attracts the interest of so many people and experts, it is very important to have information about the consumers’ perceptions regarding reduced salt foods and demand about products such as olive oils. Within this context lies the aim and the scientific contribution of the current study; it aims to support, with valuable info, both policy makers and market stakeholders dealing with the production and supply of table olives.

Specifically, this paper explores consumer behaviour, attitude, and expectations for developing a new reduced-salt table olive product from Chalkidiki olive varieties. The main aim of this paper is to investigate the knowledge and attitudes of consumers about health and nutrition, reduced salt consumption, and consumption of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green olives.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The material and methods section describes the research on data collection, the formulation of the questionnaire, validity, and reliability tests, the methodology followed for data analysis as well as research hypotheses. The next section presents the results of multivariate statistical analysis and hypothesis testing. Finally, we present the conclusions of the research.

2. Materials and Methods

The questionnaire that was developed was formulated on a five-point Likert scale and was structured in five sections:

PART I. Demographic—personal characteristics.

PART II. Respondent’s personal information.

PART III. Knowledge and attitudes about health and nutrition.

PART IV. Consumers’ attitudes about reducing salt consumption.

PART V. Consumers’ attitudes regarding the consumption of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives.

Pilot research was first conducted with the above-formulated questionnaire on a small sample of 50 consumers. The purpose of this research was to finalize the questionnaire, modify, add, or delete questions. To calculate the minimum required sample size [32], the following Functions (1), (2) and (3) were used:

$$n=\frac{Nx}{\left(N-1\right)E^2+x}$$

(1)

$$E=\surd \frac{\left(N-n\right)x}{n(n-1)}$$

(2)

$$x=Z{\left(\frac{c}{100}\right)}^{2}r\left(100-r\right)$$

(3)

where n = sample size, N = population size of the two largest cities in Greece, Athens and Thessaloniki, r = fraction of responses, c = confidence level, and Z(c/100) is the critical value for the c.

The maximum acceptable margin of error was defined as E = 5%, the critical value of the normal distribution at the required confidence level was c = 95% and the response distribution was considered equal to r = 70%. Τhe minimum sample size that emerged is 323 consumers. Data collection started from 25 September to 30 November 2022. The sample was from the two largest cities in Greece, Athens and Thessaloniki, where most consumers gather, being a representative part of the Greek population. The sample was randomly selected. An effort was made for the good geographical distribution of the questionnaires. The questionnaires were completed in person by 331 consumers.

Validity and reliability tests were performed. Validity represents the extent to which research findings accurately reflect reality [33]. It is considered a measure of the quality of the measurement process, indicates the value of the research, and is accepted and respected by researchers and users of research [34]. According to Punch [35], validity is about the accuracy and representativeness of the data. Equally important in analysis is reliability, especially in the case of multivariate statistical analysis. Reliability seeks to minimize errors and biases in the results of research instruments [33,34].

First, a validity test was conducted. Specifically, 5 experts in questionnaire research checked the structure of the questionnaire before it was distributed to consumers. The procedure was carried out using a five-point Likert scale. The result of this process was that, after 3 rounds, the group of experts agreed on all the statements and questions, with an average score equal to or greater than 4.

Then, to ensure the reliability of this research, Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the consistency, accuracy, stability, and objectivity of the research instruments. In total, 67 variables were included and analysed to determine the degree to which these variables were related to each other and to identify cases that had to be excluded. The coefficient value of Cronbach’s alpha was found to be equal to 0.93, showing a reliable scale [36,37,38]. It is worth emphasizing that none of the 331 cases were rejected from the analysis.

From a methodological point of view, this research includes both descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, and mean values) and multivariate analyses (using the statistical program SPSS-Version 28). In particular, Two-Step Cluster Analysis (TSCA) was used to classify the population of consumers with common characteristics. Bivariate Cluster Analysis is a scalable cluster analysis algorithm designed to handle large data sets and categorical variables as well as attributes [37]. Categorical Regression (CATREG) was performed to highlight the possible relationships between the purchase of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives, and a set of other variables. In particular, the CATREG model is a modern regression technique, more holistic and efficient than the most commonly used models [36], and figures relationships between the dependent variable and a set of independent variables [37]. Finally, a normality test was initially performed for hypothesis testing. In all the relevant checks, the distribution of the observations satisfactorily approached the normal standard distribution, and we did not need to proceed with “normalization”. In addition, a statistical test of residuals was carried out and, in all tests, no statistical residuals were found; therefore, they did not need to be excluded from further testing of the research hypotheses.

Hypotheses emerged through the literature review. Hypothesis testing was performed using a Chi-square statistical test and a descriptive test (explore means). Through hypothesis testing, we understand the interaction of the variables under consideration. The research hypotheses are as follows:

• H1 Consumers who are more concerned about their health are more willing to buy reduced-salt foods [31].
• H2 Consumers who know more about a product’s benefits, tend to have a greater purchase intention towards it [24,25].
• H3a Young people are more willing to buy products with reduced-salt content [21].
• H3b Male consumers are more willing to buy products with reduced-salt content [21].
• H4 The existence of a food label is associated with positive dietary outcomes such as reduced-salt products [26].
• H5 Consumers are willing to buy a product at a premium price when it has a label on the package, compared to another similar product without a label [27].

3. Results

3.1. Consumers’ Demographic and Personal Characteristics

Table 1. Consumers’ demographic and personal characteristics (n = 331 consumers).

Demographic—Personal Characteristics	Value
Gender
Male	48.34%
Female	51.66%
Age
18–30 years old	39.90%
31–43 years old	19.60%
44–56 years old	29.60%
>57 years old	10.90%
Marital status
Married, in a cohabitation agreement, or in a long-term relationship	48.40%
Single	46.20%
Separated/divorced	2.40%
Widowed	2.40%
Do not wish to answer	0.60%
Family members
One member	17.80%
Two members	22.40%
Three members	16.30%
Four members	33.20%
More than four members	10.30%
Minor members
No minors	68.00%
≤2 minors	29.30%
>2 minors	2.70%
Profession
Private employees	30.80%
Public/municipal employees	18.70%
Single professionals, self-employed, business owners	15.10%
Students	22.70%
Retired	6.90%
Domestic	3.30%
Unemployed	2.50%
Educational level
Some years of basic education	0.90%
Basic education of Primary and High School	3.00%
High school	17.50%
Higher education (University)	48.30%
Master’s degree or a PhD	30.30%
Annual household income
EUR 0–18,000	48.60%
EUR 18,001–30,000	26.90%
EUR > 30,001	24.50%
Health status
Very burdened	0.00%
Burdened	6.40%
Neutral	16.00%
Good	46.20%
Very good	31.40%
Special diet for health reasons
Yes	8.80%
No	91.20%
Advised to reduce salt intake
Yes	20.20%
No	79.80%

presents consumers’ demographic and personal characteristics, regarding gender, age, marital status, family members and minors, profession, educational level, annual household income, health status, following a special diet for health reasons, and whether it is advisory to reduce salt intake.

3.2. Knowledge and Attitudes about Health and Nutrition

Table 2. Consumers’ self-declaration attitudes towards health and nutrition (n = 331 consumers).

	Strongly Disagree [1]	Disagree [2]	Neither Agree nor Disagree [3]	Agree [4]	Strongly Agree [5]	Mean Value and St. Dev.
I have good knowledge about healthy eating	8 (2.40%)	4 (1.20%)	50 (15.10%)	204 (61.60%)	65 (19.60%)	3.95 0.78
I put the quality of the products as the first selection criterion	7 (2.10%)	24 (7.30%)	74 (22.40%)	156 (47.10%)	70 (21.10%)	3.78 0.93
I consider the nutritional value of the products	8 (2.40%)	39 (11.80%)	70 (21.10%)	172 (52.00%)	42 (12.70%)	3.61 0.94
I buy products that help prevent disease (rich in fibre, vitamins, antioxidants, minerals such as calcium, omega-3, fatty acids, etc.)	10 (3.00%)	39 (11.80%)	90 (27.20%)	154 (46.50%)	38 (11.50%)	3.52 0.95
I prefer products that do not endanger my health (products with a reduced content of salt, sugar, and preservatives)	11 (3.30%)	58 (17.50%)	69 (20.80%)	149 (45.00%)	44 (13.30%)	3.47 1.03
I buy products that help control my health problems (high cholesterol, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, etc.)	20 (6.00%)	67 (20.20%)	129 (39.00%)	81 (24.50%)	34 (10.30%)	3.13 1.04
I put the price of the products as the first selection criterion	24 (7.30%)	76 (23.00%)	106 (32.00%)	92 (27.80%)	33 (10.00%)	3.10 1.09
I always follow a healthy and balanced diet	17 (5.10%)	68 (20.50%)	132 (39.90%)	101 (30.50%)	13 (3.90%)	3.08 0.93
I am concerned about the amount of salt in my diet	22 (6.60%)	73 (22.10%)	118 (35.60%)	93 (28.10%)	25 (7.60%)	3.08 1.03
I avoid foods that contain additives	16 (4.80%)	83 (25.10%)	120 (36.30%)	94 (28.40%)	18 (5.40%)	3.05 0.97
I prefer to buy organic products	40 (12.10%)	108 (32.60%)	114 (34.40%)	62 (18.70%)	7 (2.10%)	2.66 0.99
Organic food is not better for my health than conventionally grown food	46 (13.90%)	126 (38.10%)	112 (33.80%)	41 (12.40%)	6 (1.80%)	2.50 0.94

presents the self-declaration attitudes of consumers towards health and nutrition; 61.60% of consumers believe they have good knowledge about healthy eating. Furthermore, 45.00% prefer products that do not endanger health (products with a reduced content of salt, sugar, and preservatives), and 46.50% buy products that help prevent diseases (rich in fibre, vitamins, antioxidants, minerals such as calcium, omega-3 fatty acids, etc.). In addition, consumers take into account the nutritional value of the products they buy (52.00%) and put the quality of the products as the first selection criterion (47.10%). Finally, some consumers prefer to buy organic products (20.80%), and others believe that organic food is better for health than conventionally grown food (52.00%).

3.3. Consumers’ Attitudes about Reducing Salt Consumption

The level of consumers’ knowledge about the risks of increased salt consumption is presented in

Table 3. Consumers’ knowledge about the health risks of increased salt consumption (n = 331 consumers).

	Strongly Disagree [1]	Disagree [2]	Neither Agree nor Disagree [3]	Agree [4]	Strongly Agree [5]	Mean Value and St. Dev.
High salt consumption can cause fluid retention	2 (0.60%)	6 (1.80%)	7 (2.10%)	163 (49.20%)	153 (46.20%)	4.39 0.68
High salt consumption can cause health problems	4 (1.20%)	6 (1.80%)	6 (1.80%)	159 (48.00%)	156 (47.10%)	4.38 0.73
Increased salt intake can lead to the development of hypertension	6 (1.80%)	2 (0.60%)	15 (4.50%)	160 (48.30%)	148 (44.70%)	4.34 0.76
My health might improve if I reduced my salt intake	4 (1.20%)	14 (4.20%)	78 (23.60%)	150 (45.30%)	85 (25.70%)	3.90 0.87
High salt consumption can cause a heart attack	3 (0.90%)	10 (3.00%)	96 (29.00%)	165 (49.80%)	57 (17.20%)	3.79 0.79
High salt consumption can cause kidney disease	7 (2.10%)	13 (3.90%)	113 (34.10%)	132 (39.90%)	66 (19.90%)	3.72 0.90
High salt consumption can cause a stroke	4 (1.20%)	15 (4.50%)	117 (35.30%)	144 (43.50%)	51 (15.40%)	3.67 0.83
High salt consumption can cause osteoporosis	6 (1.80%)	29 (8.80%)	144 (43.50%)	116 (35.00%)	36 (10.90%)	3.44 0.87
High salt consumption can cause stomach cancer	12 (3.60%)	41 (12.40%)	172 (52.00%)	76 (23.00%)	30 (9.10%)	3.21 0.90

. We observe that, in general, consumers are highly aware of the potential risks. There is an agreement that high salt consumption can cause health problems (M = 4.38), fluid retention (M = 4.39), and lead to the development of hypertension (M = 4.34).

Consumers were then asked about the likelihood of implementing actions to reduce their salt intake (

Table 4. Implementation of actions to reduce the intake of salt (n = 331 consumers).

	Strongly Disagree [1]	Disagree [2]	Neither Agree nor Disagree [3]	Agree [4]	Strongly Agree [5]	Mean Value and St. Dev.
Avoiding frequent consumption of highly salted foods (e.g., pastes, pickles, ready-to-eat snacks)	9 (2.70%)	25 (7.60%)	56 (16.90%)	153 (46.20%)	88 (26.60%)	3.86 0.98
Reducing the amount of salt added to food	8 (2.40%)	31 (9.40%)	42 (12.70%)	169 (51.10%)	81 (24.50%)	3.86 0.97
Reducing the consumption of processed foods	8 (2.40%)	32 (9.70%)	69 (20.80%)	179 (54.10%)	43 (13.00%)	3.66 0.91
Buy reduced-salt alternatives	12 (3.60%)	40 (12.10%)	64 (19.30%)	167 (50.50%)	48 (14.50%)	3.60 1.00
Check product labels for salt content	13 (3.90%)	45 (13.60%)	71 (21.50%)	142 (42.90%)	60 (18.10%)	3.58 1.06
Stop eating salt	78 (23.60%)	73 (22.10%)	68 (20.50%)	81 (24.50%)	31 (9.40%)	2.74 1.31

). The two actions with a higher probability of application are reducing the amount of salt added to food (M = 3.86) and avoiding the frequent consumption of highly salted foods (e.g., pasta, pickles, ready-to-eat snacks) (M = 3.86). However, stopping salt consumption appears to be the least likely (M = 2.74). Additionally, the largest percentage of consumers, 63.10%, have already bought a reduced-salt product.

3.4. Consumers’ Attitudes Regarding the Consumption of Chalkidiki Reduced-Salt Green Table Olives

Figure 1 shows the possibility of buying Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives. The majority, 50.80%, said “likely” (168 consumers), 22.10% “neither unlikely nor likely” (73 consumers), 18.40% “extremely likely” (61 consumers), 7.30% “extremely unlikely” (24 consumers), and 1.50% “unlikely” (5 consumers). Afterward, consumers were asked to rate their willingness to pay a premium price for a Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olive compared to a similar product with normal salt content. As we can see in Figure 1, the majority of consumers (174) showed a high probability with a rate of 52.60%.

Regarding the premium price, 39.30% of the consumers were willing to pay EUR 0.50–1.00 more for the purchase of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives (200 g packaging), and 30.80% would pay EUR 0–0.50 more. It is worth noting that 23.60% of consumers would pay above EUR > 1.00 for this new product. The remaining 6.30% were not interested in buying a premium price product.

3.5. Multivariate Statistical Analysis

TSCA was applied to segment the population into groups of consumers with common characteristics regarding the “Purchase of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives”. From the analysis, three clusters were created using eight variables. According to the silhouette cohesion and separation measure, the clustering process is considered satisfactory.

Table 5. Results of Bivariate Analysis in clusters—Characteristics of each cluster (n = 331 consumers).

	Cluster 1 Mean Value	Cluster 2 Mean Value	Cluster 3 Mean Value	Total Sample Mean Value
Health status	3.47	4.38	4.36	4.03
Salt reduction recommendation *	1.46	2.00	2.00	1.80
I follow a healthy diet	2.69	2.62	3.47	3.08
High salt consumption causes health problems	4.36	3.77	4.54	4.38
Buy alternative products with reduced-salt content	3.48	2.21	4.02	3.60
Previous purchase of reduced-salt product *	1.66	1.49	1.20	1.41
Buy Chalkidiki reduced-salt green olives content	3.80	3.41	3.73	3.72
Change in purchase decision after product trial	4.10	2.36	4.22	3.95

All variables are on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) with 2 exceptions *. * 1 = Yes, 2 = No.

lists the average values of the variables of each cluster.

The first cluster consists of 124 consumers (37.50%). The majority are men (56.50%), 18–30 years old (39.50%), married (46.00%), with a family of two (25.80%), and no minors (75.80%). They are private employees (37.10%), with a university degree (48.40%), and low income, EUR 0–18,000 (47.60%). These are consumers whose health status is neutral; they have been advised to reduce their salt intake and may follow a healthy and balanced diet. They also argue that high salt consumption can cause problems for their health. They are willing to purchase alternative products with reduced-salt content but have not purchased such a product in the past. Finally, they are willing to buy Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives, while testing this specific product will positively influence their purchase decision.

The second cluster, which is the smallest, has 39 consumers (11.80%). The majority are women (51.30%), 44–56 years old (41.00%), married (48.70%), with a family of four (53.80%), and no minors (64.10%). They are public and private employees at the same percentage (28.20%), with a university degree (69.20%), and low income, EUR 0–18,000 (64.10%). These are consumers whose health status is good; they have not been recommended to reduce their salt intake and do not follow a healthy and balanced diet. They also argue that high salt consumption can cause problems for their health. They are not willing to purchase alternative products with reduced-salt content but may have purchased such a product. Finally, they are indifferent to buying Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives, while testing this particular product is unlikely to positively influence their purchase decision.

The third cluster is the most numerous, as it has 168 consumers (50.70%). The majority are women (57.70%), 18–30 years old (41.70%), married (50.00%) with a family of four (34.50%), and no minors (63.10%). They are private employees and students at the same percentage (26.80%), with a university degree (43.50%), and low income, EUR 0–18,000 (45.80%). These are consumers who are in good health, have not been recommended to reduce their salt intake and follow a healthy and balanced diet. They also argue that high salt consumption can cause problems for their health. They are willing to purchase alternative products with reduced-salt content and have already purchased such a product. Finally, they are willing to buy Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives, while testing this specific product will positively influence their purchase decision.

As far as consumers’ willingness to buy Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives is concerned, we can assign the three clusters to three groups of consumers. Thus, the first cluster includes consumers who would buy the product under certain conditions, the second cluster includes consumers who would not buy the product, and, finally, the third cluster consumers who would buy the product.

To further analyse the variable from the TSCA “Purchase of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives”, it was used as the dependent variable for the CATREG model to identify those factors that influence consumer attitudes towards this product. The independent variables of the CATREG analysis are presented in

Table 6. CATREG results (n = 331 consumers).

Independent Variables	Sig.	F	Standard Error	Importance
1. Recommendation to reduce salt intake	0.000	84.654	0.055	0.424
2. Health status	<0.001	28.761	0.058	0.215
3. To reduce salt intake I would buy reduced-salt alternatives	0.000	24.349	0.053	0.092
4. I always follow a healthy and balanced diet	<0.001	10.857	0.057	0.061
5. The quality of the products is the first selection criterion	<0.001	12.616	0.072	0.052
6. Marital status	<0.001	7.855	0.062	0.028
7. Annual household income	<0.001	7.994	0.036	0.028
8. Number of minor household members	<0.001	8.147	0.047	0.025
9. Profession/Employment	<0.001	10.104	0.051	0.024
10. High salt consumption can cause health problems	<0.001	8.191	0.055	0.020
11. The price of the products is the first selection criterion	<0.001	9.246	0.042	0.018
12. Purchase of products that help control health problems (high cholesterol, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, etc.)	<0.001	9.008	0.051	0.017
13. Level of education	<0.001	6.729	0.042	0.016
14. Gender	0.064	3.472	0.042	0.013
15. Number of household members	<0.001	13.641	0.041	0.006
16. The reduction in salt intake might improve health	0.082	2.093	0.057	0.006
17. Concern about the amount of salt in the diet	<0.001	8.022	0.051	0.004
18. Age	0.025	3.169	0.072	0.002
19. Preference for products that do not endanger health (products with a reduced content of salt, sugar, and preservatives)	<0.001	13.582	0.040	0.000

Dependent variable: Purchase of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives.

.

The multiple correlation coefficient value was R² = 0.77, indicating that 77.0% of the variance in the transformed values of the dependent variable is explained by the transformed values of the independent variables participating in the regression equation.

The results of the categorical regression are presented in Table 6. The statistically significant variables are those with sig. < 0.05. The relative importance of the independent variables appears greater for the variable “Recommendation to reduce salt intake”, followed in order by the variable “Health status”. Cumulatively, these variables explain 63.90% of the total significance.

3.6. Hypothesis Testing

All the results are strictly related to the actual dataset, and a significantly bigger dataset may change it.

To test H1, a Chi-square statistical test was performed between the variables “interest in health” and “willingness to purchase reduced-salt foods”. The value of Pearson’s Chi-square index was found to be α < 0.05 at a 5% level of statistical significance. Τhen, to check whether or not our H1 is accepted, we proceeded with a descriptive test (explore means). Specifically, the test showed that consumers who are more willing to buy food with reduced-salt content are the ones who answered “likely” and “extremely likely” to follow a healthy and balanced diet, with a mean value of 3.23 and 3.33, respectively. All the above observations lead to the acceptance of H1.

To test H2, a Chi-square statistical test was performed between the variables “reduced-salt table olive purchase” and “benefits of salt intake reduction”. The value of Pearson’s Chi-square index value was found to be α < 0.05 at a 5% level of statistical significance. Τhen, to check whether or not our H2 is accepted, we proceeded with a descriptive test (explore means). Specifically, it was found that the level of knowledge significantly affects consumers in terms of buying table olives of reduced salinity. Consumers who are more likely to buy the product are those who answered that they have a higher knowledge of the benefits of reduced-salt consumption with a mean value of 4.50. Taking into account all the above observations, H2 is accepted.

H3 was split into H3a and H3b. To test H3a, a Chi-square statistical test was performed between the variables “age” and “willingness to buy reduced-salt products”. The value of Pearson’s Chi-square index was found α < 0.05 at a 5% level of statistical significance. Then, to check whether or not our H3a is accepted, we proceeded with a descriptive test (explore means). Specifically, the test showed that age is among the most important variables in consumers’ willingness to buy reduced-salt products, with a mean of 3.78. All the above observations lead to the acceptance of Hypothesis 3a. To test H3b, a Chi-square statistical test was performed between the variables of “gender” and “willingness to buy reduced-salt products”. The value of Pearson’s Chi-square index was found α < 0.05 at a 5% level of statistical significance. Then, to check whether or not our H3b is accepted, we proceeded with a descriptive test (explore means). Specifically, the test showed that gender is among the most important variables in willingness to buy reduced-salt products, with a mean of 3.69. All the above observations lead to the acceptance of Hypothesis 3b.

To test H4, a Chi-square statistical test was performed between the variables “food label” and “purchase of reduced-salt products”. The value of Pearson’s Chi-square index was found α < 0.05, so at a 5% level of statistical significance. Then, to check whether or not our H4 is accepted, we proceeded with a descriptive test (explore means). Specifically, the test indicated that consumers who would buy the reduced-salt products are those who answered that they “strongly agree” that having a food label has a positive effect, with a mean value of 3.81. All the above observations lead to the acceptance of Hypothesis 4.

To test H5, a Chi-square statistical test was performed between the variables “food label” and “buying products at a premium price”. The value of Pearson’s Chi-square index was found α < 0.05 at a 5% level of statistical significance. Τhen, to check whether or not our H5 is accepted, we proceeded with a descriptive test (explore means). Specifically, the test indicated that consumers who are likely to buy products with a premium price are those who answered that having a food label on the package is “very important”, with a mean value of 3.67. All these observations lead to the acceptance of Hypothesis 5.

4. Discussion

Research results revealed a remarkable consumer interest in reduced-salt products, which is consistent with another study that showed the high willingness of consumers to purchase reduced-salt food products even without having a salt-reduction goal [30]. Additionally, all participants recognize the potential health risks of increased salt consumption. Furthermore, the majority agree that purchasing reconstituted foods with reduced-salt content is a possible action that can be taken to reduce salt intake. Efforts should be focused on reformulating table olives to reduce their salt content [22,39]. Table olives with a reduced salt content are a matter of great interest for the establishment of table olives as a functional food, according to international nutritional guidelines [1]. However, consumers have the perception that reduced-salt foods would not be tasty and thus do not want to purchase them, especially if they have a front-pack label emphasizing this reduction [40,41]. A proposition could be to add health logos instead of salt reduction labels which indicate the healthiness of reduced-salt products and are less likely to affect consumers [29]. On the contrary, Goodman et al. [42] mentioned that front-package labels with content descriptors positively affect consumers in selecting reduced-salt products. Moreover, completely removing salt can lead to an increased risk of survival or growth of pathogenic microorganisms which can alter the taste or colour, causing significant economic losses [43]. An alternative solution to this could be the possible substitution of salt with other minerals with a mineral with a more favourable effect on human health which does not alter the taste of food [24]. Such minerals could be potassium chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl₂), and magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) [24]. However, the effect of NaCl replacement on the organoleptic characteristics of the product is still controversial [43].

According to the analysis of the data, the majority of the participating consumers are willing to buy reduced-salt table olives from cv. Chalkidiki olives, while the majority is even willing to pay a premium price for the product in question. Research by Sánchez-Rodríguez et al. [44] showed that 88.00% of participants are willing to pay more than the usual price by EUR 1.35 per 200 g. In addition, health reasons are among the factors that have the greatest positive impact on the market for reduced-salt green table olives. Consumers’ interest in health is a very positively influential factor in willingness to pay [27]. Furthermore, the higher the concern of consumers about their health, the greater their willingness to pay for safer and healthier foods [45], and the more attention that will be paid to salt content information on foods [32].

Plenty successful actions regarding salt consumption were implemented through awareness campaigns, voluntary support, regulations, and intervention programs [46]. An effective tool for promoting behaviour change and reduction in salt consumption could be mass media campaigns [47]. Awareness campaigns towards reduced-salt products and their health benefits will influence consumers. This is also supported by Mork et al. [30], who mentioned that health authorities should educate consumers about salt intake through public campaigns. The importance of education is highlighted by Tsimitri et al. [48], who proposed media and social media as potential education tools. The lack of knowledge and understanding of the negative effects of salt excessive consumption, and the lack of knowledge of the salt content of food are among the barriers to salt reduction [49]. The food manufacturing industry could be the key to food reformulation. A proposed strategy referred to as “health by stealth” includes gradually lowering salt content by small percentages, without consumers noticing it. This action will take decades to make any impact on public health, but it can train consumer palates into salt-reduced foods. Efforts of the food industry should be widespread to adjust consumers’ sensory acceptance. Food labelling and social marketing campaigns allow manufacturers to promote the healthy and nutritious characteristics of products and encourage consumers towards their consumption [50]. From an academic point of view, the results of this research could be a useful guide in designing training and awareness programs. The cooperation of science, technology, and health organisations is the best way to understand and create foods that can benefit people’s health [50].

5. Conclusions

This paper’s scientific contribution is to provide knowledge about consumers’ behaviour towards new products with specific characteristics, as well as to propose possible actions to raise their awareness. The present research focuses on investigating the demand/market for a new table olive product with reduced-salt content from cv. Chalkidiki olives. At the same time, the level of knowledge and the attitude of consumers regarding health issues and eating habits as well as their behaviour towards reduced-salt foods are evaluated. In terms of content, the present research helps to segment the population into groups of consumers with common characteristics (similar consumption behaviour) and identify the main variables influencing consumers’ willingness to purchase the product of this research. The emerged results of the study, through the application of a sound and adequate statistical methodology, can be found to be useful to both policy makers and market stakeholders. Important messages regarding consumers preferences about salt can be transferred to the producers of products such as table olives.

The statistical analysis performed allowed the discovery of statistical relationships that were not apparent through the descriptive statistical analysis initially performed. TSCA was applied to segment the population into groups of consumers with common characteristics regarding the “Purchase of Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olives”, creating three clusters using eight variables. It is worth mentioning that the classification of consumers into three different groups, those who would buy the product under certain conditions (first cluster), those who would not buy the product (second cluster), and those who would buy the product (third cluster), is really important for food industries to choose the right way to attract them into this market. Segmenting consumers into clusters with similar behaviour is the first step to more successful promotional and marketing strategies. Separate actions could be designed based on the specific characteristics and needs of each cluster. Furthermore, CATREG revealed the two most important factors, “health status” and “recommendation on reducing salt intake”, influencing consumers’ willingness to purchase this new product. Informational tools such as health campaigns could raise consumers’ awareness towards reduced-salt products and their health benefits while reflecting positively on the new product “Chalkidiki reduced-salt green table olive”.

To sum up, the results of this research conclude that the prospect of producing a new reduced-salt table olive product is promising, as the interest of consumers has turned to foods concerning health and safety. A limitation of the research is that we cannot generalize the results at the level of the country’s population due to the relatively small sample, nevertheless, it shows a trend with which we can draw important conclusions about consumers’ attitudes and behaviour. The size of the sample follows the specifications of the project that this research was carried out. Another weakness is the order and the way the questions were worded as there is a risk of biasing the responses. Moreover, the demographic questions should have been raised at the end of the questionnaire rather than at the beginning. Future research can use larger samples to uncover potential differences with the findings of the present research. Comparing results of similar studies, but in different areas or countries, presents a promising future research path.