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Article

Understanding the Push-Pull Factors for Joseonjok (Korean-Chinese) Students Studying in South Korea

by
Xianghua Cai
1,
Donghao Zhang
2 and
Yuanying Jin
3,*
1
Normal College, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
2
School of Health in Social Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK
3
Department of Education, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(1), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010155
Submission received: 9 October 2023 / Revised: 15 December 2023 / Accepted: 20 December 2023 / Published: 22 December 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Approach and Policy in Higher Education for Sustainability)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The factors motivating Joseonjok (Korean-Chinese) students to choose South Korean universities as their study abroad destination have been understudied. In this study, researchers examined the factors that affect Joseonjok students’ decision to pursue postgraduate education in South Korea by analyzing interview data collected from 15 Joseonjok graduate students studying at Korean universities using a case study approach. The study identified individual-level, family-level, and national-level push and pull factors motivating Joseonjok students to choose South Korea as their graduate study destination. At the individual level, academic achievement and educational barriers served as push factors, while emotional and ethnic solidarity with Koreans acted as pull factors. On the community level, study abroad trends and immigration patterns among the Joseonjok population were identified as push factors, and the presence of families, relatives, and friends in South Korea served as pull factors. At the national level, push factors included educational policies for minorities in China and fierce competition in higher education entrance exams and the job market. Conversely, national-level pull factors encompassed the ‘Study Korea Policy’ and policies for overseas Koreans. The current study has implications for policymakers and universities who are planning to recruit international students and educational practitioners intending to provide career counseling and guidance to minority students. Furthermore, we expect the results of the current study to contribute to the sustainable development of higher education in both China and South Korea.

1. Introduction

Education is a stepping-stone to the sustainable development of a nation. Therefore, sustainable education is a crucial concern in both China and South Korea. Sustainable education refers to the delivery of knowledge that encompasses economic, social, and personal aspects, with the ultimate goal of contributing to a balanced national development [1]. As globalization continues to expand and evolve, an increasing number of Chinese students are choosing to study abroad. In 2019 alone, about 703,500 Chinese students pursued higher education degrees abroad. From 1978 to 2019, the total number of Chinese students studying abroad reached 6,560,600 [2]. This trend is driven by heightened competition in the job market and growing demand for higher education in China. However, the country faces a challenge due to limited educational resources. Therefore, studying abroad becomes a compensatory measure, addressing the scarcity of educational opportunities within the country and enabling more Chinese students to receive higher education. Thus, understanding the motivations behind Chinese students’ choice to study abroad has significant implications for human resource development and contributes to sustainable national development from the perspective of China. English-speaking countries such as the United States or England are the major destinations for Chinese students. However, in the last 20 years, Asian countries such as South Korea have become important study-abroad destinations for Chinese students [3,4].
Meanwhile, South Korea’s educational system has encountered tremendous challenges recently, threatening its sustainable development. Challenges mainly arise from the shrinking school-age population due to the low birth rate, resulting in many higher educational institutions facing difficulties in recruiting students. For example, the birth rate in 2022 was 0.78, and the total birth population for the year was 249,000 [5]. In contrast, the total number of students taking the Korean College Scholastic Ability Test, which is crucial for college admission, was 509,821 in 2022. Among the participants, 26% (134,834) are students who take the exam more than once [6]. In response to the current circumstance, the Korean government began actively hosting international students via its “Study Korea Project,” launched in 2004. This initiative aims to cope with the shrinking school-age population and to globalize its academic institutions [7,8]. Consequently, in 2022, there were about 67,439 Chinese students studying at Korean higher education institutions, representing 40.4% of the total number of international students in South Korea at the time [9]. Given this situation, understanding the motivation of international students to choose South Korea is imperative for the Korean government and institutions to provide a tailored recruiting and support program, ensuring the sustainable development of their educational system.
Among the Chinese student population, there is a special group called the Joseonjok, or Korean-Chinese. Joseonjok refers to an ethnic group of people that have Korean heritage but hold Chinese citizenship. The Joseonjok migrated from the Korean peninsula in the last century due to political and economic causes and acquired Chinese nationality in 1945. When diplomatic relations were formally established between the Republic of China and South Korea in 1992, South Korea started to become a land of opportunity without language barriers where Joseonjok people could pursue financial wealth and potentially realize a better life [10]. As a result, the size of the Joseonjok population in South Korea has expanded dramatically. Of the 804,976 overseas Koreans currently living in South Korea, the Joseonjok population numbers 626,729, which is 77.8% of the total [11]. Most Joseonjok people in Korea are blue-collar workers, and a small proportion of them are white-collar workers and international students.
The “push-pull” model is a frequently cited framework that can explain the reasons why students choose to study abroad. The push-pull model assumes that push and pull factors affect students’ decisions to study abroad. In general, push factors operate within the source country, and pull factors operate within the host country [12]. For example, in ref. [12]’s study, the push factors include the assumptions that studying abroad is better than studying in the country, that there will be difficulties in entering a local university, and that students will gain a better understanding of the West by studying abroad, while also accounting for students’ plans to migrate after graduation, whereas the pull factors include the reputation of the host country, parental influence, social links in the form of family and friends who live in the host country, the cost of international education, and the local environment. The factors influencing the decision to study abroad occur at many levels and include things such as individual motivation and national marketing [13]. Although the push-pull model provides a comprehensive picture for understanding the reasons for international study, it has been criticized as being overly simplistic. For example, some factors are hard to categorize as either push or pull factors [14].
Meanwhile, extant career theory emerged within the framework of Western cultural paradigms, thereby constraining its applicability to individuals within specific socio-economic contexts. For example, examinations of research trends within articles published in prominent international journals over the preceding 47 years pertaining to the career development of minority or ethnic groups have underscored the existing dearth of comprehensive research on these demographic cohorts. Consequently, prudence is warranted in extrapolating findings from one ethnic group to another [15,16]. In essence, there exists a compelling imperative to undertake targeted career research for distinct ethnic or minority groups to augment the multicultural sensitivity inherent in prevailing career theories.
Previous studies about Joseonjok students in Korea are focused on adjustments to Korean culture [17,18], language [19,20], and identity issues [21,22]. However, there is a dearth of studies that investigate the specific reasons why Joseonjok students decide to study in Korea. In contrast, there have been several studies examining the factors influencing Chinese students’ decision to study in Korea. The reasons include the Korean Wave, the relatively inexpensive tuition fees, the proximity between the two countries, and the high admission rate (low institution selectivity) [23,24,25]. Despite limited evidence from the previous study, it is apparent that ethnic and cultural factors are significant reasons for Joseonjok students choosing a South Korean university. For example, a quantitative study that compared the reasons for choosing Korea as a study abroad destination between the Han ethnic group, the majority ethnic group in China, and the Joseonjok ethnic group revealed distinct factors for the latter, such as “liking Korea,” “due to a sense of connectivity,” and “fewer language barriers” [26]. Additionally, studies [27,28] also revealed that factors such as using the same language, being comfortable with Korean culture, and having many seniors and friends from the same ethnic group already living in Korea significantly influence Joseonjok students’ decision to study in Korea.
Building on these findings, it is presumed that the factors motivating Joseonjok students to study in South Korea might be tied to their unique individual and contextual influences related to their ethnic and cultural traits. As ref. [29] argued, understanding the decision-making process of specific racial or ethnic groups required consideration of cultural-specific factors. This is evident in studies of Chinese-Myanmarese students choosing higher education institutions in China due to geographical proximity, ethnic intimacy, shared ethnic identity, and encouragement from relatives in China [30]. Similarly, overseas Chinese students in Southeast Asia were motivated by factors like ethnic identity, acculturation to Chinese culture, and intimacy born of language and culture [31,32]. Thus, to comprehend why Joseonjok students choose Korea as their study abroad destination, a push-pull framework encompassing individual and contextual factors is needed.
The aim of the current study is to comprehensively investigate the factors motivating Joseonjok students to study in South Korean universities. To achieve the research purpose, a case study approach, a qualitative study method suitable for investigating the subjective experiences of participants deeply and answering “why” and “how” research questions in a real-world context [33], was applied. We adopted a case study methodology, specifically employing a qualitative approach, due to the limited scope of comprehensive investigations on this subject. The extant research primarily centered on the comparative analysis of motivations for selecting a Korean university among Han ethnic students and Joseonjok students, utilizing a quantitative methodology [26]. Other inquiries within this domain have focused on investigating the transnational immigration patterns of the Joseonjok younger generation [27]. Additionally, a distinct investigation delved into the perspectives of Joseonjok students regarding South Korea [28]. However, a direct and exhaustive exploration into the factors influencing Joseonjok students’ choice of Korea as their study destination has not yet been conducted. In the absence of a theoretical framework and antecedent studies, the utilization of a qualitative study to probe profoundly into the intricacies surrounding this phenomenon proves advantageous.
We anticipate that the results of this study will serve as an essential resource for policymakers and universities planning to recruit international students and educational practitioners providing career counseling and guidance to minority students. Furthermore, we expect the results of the current study to contribute to the sustainable development of higher education in both China and South Korea.
The research question in this study was: Why do Joseonjok students from China choose South Korea as their study-abroad destination?

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

Using the snowball sampling method [34], researchers recruited and interviewed 15 Joseonjok graduate students for this study. Of them, 11 were women, and four were men, with ages ranging from the mid-20s to the early 40s. Their academic majors were evenly divided among the humanities, sciences, and social studies. Most of them originated from three northeast provinces of China, and all participants, except three, had been studying in a Korean-Chinese secondary school in China. The years of stay in South Korea ranged from 1 year and 7 months to 17 years and 7 months. Demographic information of participants is presented in Table 1.

2.2. Protocol Development

We developed semi-structured interview questions with the aim of best serving the research purposes. The main interview questions were ‘What have you experienced in the process of coming to Korea?’ and ‘What factors influenced your decision to come here?’ More specifically, we asked participants questions such as ‘How did you come to Korea?’ and ‘What difficulties have you experienced in the process of choosing Korea, and how have you overcome them?’. Additionally, we inquired about ‘what (environment, person, event, happenstance, etc.) helped you come here?’. We posed these open-ended questions to allow participants to explore their experiences deeply.

2.3. Data Analysis

The inductive analysis approach, which is a bottom-up approach, was applied in data analysis [35]. Specifically, the current data applied the pattern-matching method proposed by [33]. Interview data was transcribed into text first. Then, categories and themes emerged from the data through open coding. Lastly, using the constant comparative method [36], we frequently went back to the raw data to compare observed patterns with expected patterns and finally created matched patterns.

2.4. Validity and Reliability

To improve the validity and reliability of the study, we assessed the data using the standards proposed by [37]: credibility, fittingness, and auditability (or confirmability). Specifically, to confirm credibility, we used open-ended questions to elicit experiences from participants via individual interviews. The interviews were recorded and transcribed line by line, and the data was used in the analysis. Furthermore, we adopted a member check process to ensure that the content and analysis of the interviews truly reflected the ideas of the participants. In addition to the interview data, we used various data sources, including observation records, researchers’ memos, and related literature, to validate the results. To ensure suitability, we arranged short meetings during the recruiting process to screen the participants and attempted to recruit individuals who had experienced the phenomena that are the focus of the current study and who could freely articulate their own experiences. To guarantee the auditability of the study, we asked two researchers with doctoral degrees in counseling and experience in conducting research on the topic of the Joseonjok people to verify the research results and provide feedback. To minimize bias, we consulted a supervisor and the aforementioned two researchers. Through the above process, we tried to achieve confirmability by setting aside any preconceived ideas and looking at participants’ own experiences within their real-world context.

3. Results

The current study identified four individual-level factors, four community-level factors, and four national-level factors for Joseonjok students, which are listed in Table 2.

3.1. Individual-Level Push-Pull Factors

Individual push factors include the prospect of academic achievement and a dedication to developing more advanced abilities, as well as the barriers participants faced in preparing for graduate school admission at Chinese universities. Participants noted the prevalence of higher education in China and that receiving a postgraduate education is important to secure their future careers. Furthermore, they believed they would have a greater chance of being admitted to prominent Korean universities, where they could receive a quality education, than to universities in China.
Participant 10: There are so many people who have a bachelor’s degree in China. I do think it is helpful in some way if you possess a higher degree… If you are equipped with professional knowledge, it will help you find a better career, and it will also be good for your future development.
Participant 4: I think the admission rate at South Korean universities is high, and one could have more chances to enter top-ranked universities here. So, this is a better place to develop my abilities and learn more things.
The main obstacle faced by participants in gaining admission to graduate schools in China is the language barrier, which is also connected to the academic challenges they encountered during their undergraduate studies. A significant number of Joseonjok students are bilingual, with Korean being their first language. Consequently, they feel that they lack competitiveness in the demanding graduate school entrance exams conducted in Chinese.
Participant 13: I graduated from a Joseonjok high school and went to undergraduate school in Beijing. While studying there, I experienced many difficulties due to the language barrier. I considered preparing for graduate school in China, but when I saw the vast amount of material I needed to remember in Chinese, I thought I had little chance of passing the exam. I felt I was not competitive enough compared to other Chinese students whose mother tongue is Chinese.
Participants said they felt an emotional connection and a sense of closeness to Korea due to sharing the same ethnic background with people in South Korea.
Participant 4: Korea is a country where I can go anytime. It is a very comfortable place for me compared to other countries. People there speak the same language as I do, and they are of the same ethnicity.
Participants reported that having a similar cultural background to the host country and speaking the same language were also important pull factors. They anticipated that they could adjust to life and study in Korea better than if they studied in other countries.
Participant 6: Because of the language convenience, I can understand the lessons well, and I am also familiar with Korean culture, so I thought I might experience fewer difficulties in studying and living in Korea.

3.2. Community-Level Push-Pull Factors

Pursuing a foreign degree has become commonplace for Chinese students. As a result, Joseonjok students also consider studying abroad to be important to their careers. With an increasing number of Joseonjok students choosing to study in Korea, they have begun to contemplate the advantages of studying in Korea and perceive it as a place where they can realize their self-worth.
Participant 1: There were many people studying abroad around me, and some of them chose Korea. I heard stories of those who had the experience of studying abroad and started to think about going myself. I thought if I received a graduate degree in another country, my self-worth could increase.
Universities in Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, the home of the majority of China’s Joseonjok population, have built relationships with universities in Korea due to their shared geographic and ethnic characteristics. Some students from the area have been given the chance to study at Korean universities thanks to tuition waivers or scholarships, courtesy of their connections with Korean professors. This highlights the heightened accessibility of Korean universities for Joseonjok students.
Participant 8: I graduated from a university in the Yanbian area, and many universities there have established partnerships with Korean universities. We can easily get admission thanks to tuition waivers from Korean universities, so many students from our school are studying at Korean universities. In my case, I went to a Korean university as an exchange student when I was a college senior and I had a really good experience there.
Many young people in Yanbian have left home because of the economic downturn and high unemployment rate in the area. This has also become an important factor that facilitates the decision to study in Korea. While observing friends and seniors around them settling down in new places where they can develop and explore better careers, participants said they realized that they should take a risk and explore their careers while living beyond their comfort zone.
Participant 9: In China, you always need to start over as long as the place you choose to live is not your hometown… My hometown is a small city, with few opportunities, so many of my friends would rather go to big cities like Shanghai or Beijing, or even to Korea… Most of them are trying to find a new foundation for their lives.
The immigration of relatives and friends to Korea made participants feel comfortable with Korea and gave them positive expectations of the country. Some participants live with or can often see parents who already reside in Korea. Others received practical help while settling down in Korea from relatives who came to Korea before them.
Participant 11: My parents live in Korea now. I had thought that if I stayed in China, I wouldn’t be able to see them often, but since I’m studying in Korea, I can live close to them and contact them more often. I think this is an important factor that affected my decision to come to Korea to study.
Participant 11: For many Joseonjok students, having relatives living in Korea proves beneficial. They can initially live with their relatives when they first arrive, which helps them adjust well to their studies and life in Korea.
It seems that the help and suggestions from friends who have experience studying in Korea played an important role in the participant’s decision to study there, too. Participants drew on the experiences of friends as essential resources and received practical help in applying to Korean universities and moving to Korea.
Participant 1: If I had decided to go to the United States, I might have had no clue. With Korea, I have friends and seniors who are already here, so I asked them a lot of questions. They told me that I needed to take the TOPIK (Test of Proficiency in Korean), and I thought the exam wouldn’t be a big problem for me, so I felt it was possible for me to gain (graduate school) admission.
Participant 6: One of my seniors, who already graduated from a Korean university, gave me a lot of help, such as what I should prepare during the application process, how to fill in the application form, how long the whole process would take, and so on.

3.3. National-Level Push-Pull Factors

Under China’s educational policy for minorities, Joseonjok students are able to preserve their own culture and use their own language. However, this results in a gap between Joseonjok students and other Chinese students in terms of language, culture, and education, eventually leading Joseonjok students to face many difficulties in preparing for graduate school in China.
Participant 11: Chinese students have many chances to learn Chinese culture and history from the environment they live in and their parents from childhood, and they only need to study Chinese and English. I lived in the Yanbian area, and I went to a Joseonjok school. At the school, I took Korean courses, and I learned about the immigrant history of the Joseonjok population. I have been speaking Korean since childhood. There is an educational gap between Chinese and Joseonjok students.
Perceived difficulties in pursuing graduate school in China, as well as the fierce competition in higher education entrance exams and the job market, directly affect participants’ confidence and their perceived competitiveness, leading them to believe that they should improve their competence by studying abroad.
Participant 13: It is hard to find a good job with only a bachelor’s degree in China because there are so many people who even have master’s degrees. If I want to compete with them, I need to learn more to acquire more competence.
Korean universities are more accessible for Joseonjok students than universities in English-speaking countries. Korean universities provide a special track for international students where the only requirement is a document screening, and Joseonjok students can benefit from this policy. Additionally, Joseonjok students can easily receive a Korean language certificate for applying to Korean universities. If Joseonjok students choose to go to an English-speaking country, language, and financial issues can be barriers.
Participant 3: If we choose to go to an English-speaking country to study further, we probably need to study the language for one or two years… In order to get into a Korean university, we just have to submit a language certificate. For us, a Korean language certificate is not a problem, so it is not that difficult to come here… If we plan to go to graduate school in China, we have to take an entrance exam, but here in Korea, we can apply through the special track for foreigners. Korea also has many scholarship programs, so these are big advantages for us to come here to study.
Korea’s immigration policy for overseas Koreans has done much to facilitate Joseonjok students’ study and settlement in Korea. Many Joseonjok students who apply for a Korean visa with a bachelor’s degree qualify for the overseas Korean visa (F-4) rather than the international student visa (D-2). The process of applying for and renewing the F-4 visa is remarkably convenient and straightforward, making living and working in Korea significantly easier compared to doing so with an international student visa. As a result, this policy provides numerous benefits to Joseonjok students, enabling them to study in Korea and eventually pursue employment and settle down in the country after completing their studies.
Participant 5: For Joseonjok students, if they have a bachelor’s degree, they can apply for the F-4 (overseas Korean visa). People who have the international student visa (D-2) need to extend their visa every year and it is inconvenient. However, with the F-4 visa, it only needs to be extended every three years, allowing us to live here for a long time as long as we get our visa extended. Moreover, we can apply for different kinds of jobs here freely with the F-4 visa.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to examine the experiences of Joseonjok students who chose South Korea as their study abroad destination using a case study approach. The distinctive push-pull factors for Joseonjok students were identified. In this section, we will discuss the results in comparison to Chinese students and other minority students.

4.1. Comparisons to Chinese Students

This study identified academic achievement, barriers to further education, the trend toward studying abroad, and the competitive academic and employment environment as push factors for studying abroad. These factors have also been identified in previous research on Chinese students and duplicate the results of ref. [38]’s research, which asserted that personal motivations, such as academic achievement, improving competitiveness in the job market, and social mobility, have a significant impact on a person’s decision to study abroad. In particular, for graduate students, having a clear goal for the future has been identified as an important factor [39] in their decision to study abroad. In recent years, there has been an increasing demand for higher education among Chinese students in China due to the intensely competitive job market, leading to a mismatch between the supply of higher education and the demand for it [40,41,42]. This discrepancy has also resulted in intensified competition for graduate school admission, which has become an important factor driving many Chinese students to pursue education abroad [43,44].
Aside from that, this study found that Joseonjok students are influenced by different push factors than Chinese students, such as the trend among the Joseonjok population toward immigration to South Korea and the educational policy for minorities in China. Since the implementation of the Open Door Policy in China, a significant proportion of the Joseonjok population has migrated to South Korea. According to the [45], more than 42% of the total Joseonjok population (1,702,479) is residing in South Korea. It has been found that the decisions of Joseonjok students to study abroad in South Korea are highly influenced by their parents and friends’ settlement in South Korea [28,46].
China’s educational policy for minorities is implemented within a unified education system. Under the policy, minority students are allowed to receive ethnic studies education to preserve their cultural heritage. However, this means that minority students experience differences in educational resources compared to mainstream Han Chinese students. In particular, many minority students primarily use their ethnic language during childhood, so they might not be as proficient in Chinese as their Han Chinese peers [47]. The fact that minority students must study and take exams in Chinese might affect their self-efficacy in pursuing graduate education [48]. As a result, the perceived barriers to pursuing graduate education among Joseonjok undergraduate students might be greater due to language limitations, and this could play a significant role in their decision to study abroad.
On the other hand, the study highlighted the significance of friends in South Korea, along with the impact of the country’s recruiting policies for international students (e.g., Study Korea Policy), as key pull factors influencing the choice of South Korea as a study destination for Chinese students, including Joseonjok students. Both Chinese and Joseonjok students highly regard the advice of parents and friends as influential in their career decisions [41], so, like other Asian students, they often seek guidance from family and friends during the career decision-making process [49]. Furthermore, previous research has shown that Chinese students are drawn to Korea for its lax admission process, which is seen as an advantage over Western universities [50].
Significantly, Joseonjok students are influenced by unique factors when deciding to study in Korea, including emotional and ethnic solidarity with Korean citizens, the settlement of families and relatives in Korea, and the national immigration policy for overseas Koreans. This sharply contrasts with the findings of previous research on Chinese students, where factors such as geographical proximity, affordable tuition fees, and the influence of the Korean Wave (Hallyu) were identified as the main pull factors for studying in South Korea [23,24,25]. In particular, the ethnicity factor plays a significant role in Joseonjok students’ decision to study in Korea, which is consistent with earlier studies [26,28]. On the other hand, lifestyle differences, language barriers, and other factors contribute to Chinese students’ reluctance to consider studying abroad [51].
Previous research supports the idea that the desire to live with parents or siblings who are already living or working in Korea can be a crucial factor for Joseonjok students when deciding whether to study in South Korea [52]. Furthermore, Joseonjok students benefit from policies for overseas Koreans, such as the F-4, due to their status as ethnic Koreans, which have a positive influence on their decision to study in Korea. This is in stark contrast to Chinese students’ decisions to study in Korea, where visa policies ranked only 10th as a significant factor [53].

4.2. Comparisons to Other Minority Students

The distinctive factors identified in this study are partially supported by previous research on ethnic minorities and the overseas Chinese population. According to previous studies, factors such as kinship-based intimacy, the influence of relatives in the study-abroad country, and ethnic and cultural familiarity have persuaded members of China’s overseas ethnic minorities and overseas Chinese population to choose China as their study-abroad destination [30,31,32].
However, this study shows that the trend toward immigration among the Joseonjok population, China’s minority education policies, and Korea’s policies for overseas Koreans, primarily the F-4 visa, have a significant influence on Joseonjok students’ decision to study in Korea. This can be understood by considering the characteristics of China’s minority education policies, Korea’s national strategy to utilize diasporic Koreans as valuable resources, and the complex interaction between the economic development of the Joseonjok autonomous region in northeastern China and the high aspirations of the Joseonjok community.
In a broader context, the factors elucidated in this study exhibit parallels with those influencing Chinese students in their choice of Korea. Nevertheless, a noteworthy disparity observed among Joseonjok students, in contrast to their Chinese counterparts, pertains to ‘ethnicity’, encompassing the salience of emotional and ethnic solidarity, policies for minorities in China, and policies for overseas Koreans in South Korea. In consonance with antecedent investigations on minority or ethnic cohorts, considerations associated with ‘ethnicity’ emerge as substantive determinants influencing Joseonjok students in opting for South Korea. This implies that ‘ethnicity’ assumes a pivotal role in shaping their career decision-making process.

4.3. Theoretical and Practical Implication

In contemporary discourse, prevailing career theories derived from Western cultural foundations have encountered criticism for their perceived inadequacy in demonstrating cultural sensitivity when applied to distinct minority or ethnic groups [15,16]. The present study directs its focus toward Joseonjok students, who have been nurtured within Eastern cultural contexts, with the aim of enhancing comprehension of multicultural career theory. More specifically, it broadens the application of social cognitive career theory to minority groups. Unlike traditional career theory, which underscores individual influences in the career decision-making process, social cognitive career theory advocates for the integration of individual, environmental, and contextual factors to enhance explanations in career decision-making [54]. Through an examination of contextual support and barriers in career choice, the current study implies the relevance of the theory to minority groups, such as Joseonjok. Moreover, the results of the current study extend the existing push-pull model by delving into various levels of push-pull factors.
Additionally, the Joseonjok community, constituting a minority in China and sharing historical roots with Korea, assumes a consequential role in facilitating exchange between the two nations. Acknowledging the pivotal significance of human capital in national development, both countries are committed to the reception and nurturance of distinguished talents. Within this framework, the career decisions of Joseonjok students, specifically those at the graduate level, hold relevance for the mutual advancement of both nations. Consequently, the present study contributes empirical evidence that buttresses the strategic development of human resources for both countries. More specifically, the study yields two practical implications. First, gaining insights into the pull factors for Joseonjok students equips the Korean government and institutions with the means to devise tailored policies to attract and support international students. For instance, the South Korean government could institute a cultural program emphasizing emotional and ethnic solidarity with Koreans for Joseonjok students or provide various policy benefits to facilitate their settlement in Korea after graduation. Second, understanding push factors holds practical implications for the Chinese government to enact policies preventing the loss of human resources. For example, the existing educational policy for minorities, while beneficial for maintaining cultural heritage, simultaneously creates an educational gap between the mainstream and minorities. Consequently, the current study serves as a catalyst for the Chinese government to contemplate strategies for preserving cultural heritage while concurrently enhancing minority educational competence.

4.4. Limitations

This study has limitations in terms of the research subjects and their background, necessitating careful consideration of the following points in future research. First, the study subjects are Joseonjok graduate students who were born, educated, and raised in China’s three northeastern provinces, which are the primary settlement areas for the Joseonjok population. Therefore, there are limitations in applying the results of this study to Joseonjok students who grew up in environments with a different educational system and linguistic backgrounds. Moreover, there might be some differences in the study abroad decisions of undergraduate and graduate students [51]. Thus, the findings of this study can be used as a reference for understanding the career decision factors of Joseonjok students who pursue undergraduate studies in Korean universities, but further research is needed. Second, since 2017, China’s emphasis on “Chinese national community consciousness” and the Chinese government’s implementation of the “National Common Language and Writing Law” in 2019 can be viewed as national strategies for its transformation into a modernized socialist country with Chinese characteristics, aimed at enhancing national unity and cohesion. These policy trends bring new challenges to the existing social and educational environments for minority groups and require changes in Joseonjok society, families, and individuals. Therefore, the results of this study on Joseonjok students who have grown up under the current minority educational policies need to be carefully examined in future research on the factors influencing Joseonjok students’ decisions to study abroad. In other words, future research on Joseonjok students’ study abroad decisions must adequately consider the changes in the existing national, social, and cultural contexts.

5. Conclusions

While studies, such as ref. [55], have underscored the impact of both external and internal factors on international student mobility, previous research on career decision-making, encompassing the choice to study abroad across diverse ethnic groups, has consistently emphasized the importance of sociocultural contexts and environmental influences [56,57]. Despite these insights, there has been a noticeable gap in existing literature regarding international students’ study abroad decisions, with insufficient attention given to the intricate interplay of multiple factors across various levels. In response to this gap, the present study takes a novel approach by analyzing the push and pull factors influencing Joseonjok students’ decisions to study in South Korea at three distinct levels: individual, community, and national. Particularly, within this array of factors, ‘ethnicity’—encompassing emotional and ethnic solidarity with South Korea, educational policies tailored for minorities in China, policies pertaining to overseas Koreans, and familial connections in South Korea, among others—emerged as a salient consideration, distinctly divergent from the considerations of Chinese international students.
Furthermore, this study holds significance from both China’s and Korea’s perspectives. It provides valuable insights for China in developing strategies to prevent the loss of Joseonjok human resources while offering South Korea opportunities to enhance the entry and integration of diasporic Koreans. From an educational standpoint, the findings of this study are anticipated to make substantial contributions by guiding career decisions and counseling approaches that genuinely consider the cultural and ethnic characteristics of minority students. Ultimately, the study is expected to contribute to sustainable higher education in both China and South Korea.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.C. and Y.J.; methodology, X.C.; validation, X.C. and Y.J.; formal analysis, X.C. and Y.J.; investigation, X.C.; writing—original draft preparation, X.C., Y.J. and D.Z.; writing—review and editing, X.C., Y.J. and D.Z.; visualization, Y.J.; supervision, X.C. and Y.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Seoul National University (protocol code 2003/002-006 on 5 March 2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data are not publicly available due to ethical issues.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table 1. Demographic Information of Participants.
Table 1. Demographic Information of Participants.
No.GenderAgeMajorPlace of BirthType of SchoolLength of Stay
1Female25Nutritional ScienceLiao NingJoseonjok school1 year 7 months
2Female31NursingHei Long JiangJoseonjok school5 years 6 months
3Female32Nanotechnology EngineeringJi LinJoseonjok school8 years
4Male32LawJi LinJoseonjok school2 years
5Male26Media CommunicationJi LinJoseonjok school3 years 2 months
6Female25Social WelfareJi LinJoseonjok school2 years 7 months
7Female27NursingJi Lin, Shang DongChinese School2 years 8 months
8Female42Counselor EducationJi LinJoseonjok school17 years 7 months
9Male30PsychologyJi LinJoseonjok school7 years 3 months
10Female27Human ResourcesJi LinJoseonjok school1 year 6 months
11Male30Synthetic BiologyJi LinJoseonjok school6 years 3 months
12Female34Synthetic BiologyHei Long JiangChinese school4 years 10 months
13Female34Environmental PlanningJi LinJoseonjok school5 years 2 months
14Female37Translation and Interpretation StudiesJi LinJoseonjok school12 years 8 months
15Female30EngineeringHei Long JiangChinese school10 years 8 months
Table 2. Push-Pull Factors for Joseonjok Students by Level.
Table 2. Push-Pull Factors for Joseonjok Students by Level.
LevelPush Factors (China)Pull Factors (South Korea)
Individual Academic achievementEmotional solidarity with Koreans
Educational barriersEthnic solidarity with Koreans
CommunityStudy abroad trendFamilies and Relatives in Korea
Immigration trend among the Joseonjok populationFriends in Korea
NationalEducational policy for minorities in ChinaStudy Korea Policy
Fierce competition in higher education entrance exams and the job marketPolicy for Overseas Koreans
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Cai, X.; Zhang, D.; Jin, Y. Understanding the Push-Pull Factors for Joseonjok (Korean-Chinese) Students Studying in South Korea. Sustainability 2024, 16, 155. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010155

AMA Style

Cai X, Zhang D, Jin Y. Understanding the Push-Pull Factors for Joseonjok (Korean-Chinese) Students Studying in South Korea. Sustainability. 2024; 16(1):155. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010155

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Cai, Xianghua, Donghao Zhang, and Yuanying Jin. 2024. "Understanding the Push-Pull Factors for Joseonjok (Korean-Chinese) Students Studying in South Korea" Sustainability 16, no. 1: 155. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16010155

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