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Article

The Role of Landscape in Sustainable Tourism Development—A Study of Identification and Evaluation of Landscape Qualities of the Vrbanja Basin in Bosnia and Herzegovina

by
Vesna Rajčević
*,
Tanja Mišlicki Tomić
,
Irena Medar-Tanjga
,
Mlađen Trifunović
,
Neda Živak
and
Aleksandra Petrašević
Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, University of Banja Luka, Mladena Stojanovića 2, 78000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(7), 6121; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076121
Submission received: 3 March 2023 / Revised: 30 March 2023 / Accepted: 30 March 2023 / Published: 1 April 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Tourism and Use of Natural Resources—Contemporary Practices and Management Challenges)
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Abstract

:
The concept of landscape has opened up a vast field of contemporary multidisciplinary research. Character identification, typology, digital presentation, protection and evaluation from the aspect of tourist suitability are some of the main topics. Unfortunately, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is a very small number of complex studies that try to study landscapes in the function of tourism development. The main purpose of the research is the identification of landscape characters, the creation of their typology, and the assessment of their suitability for the development of sustainable tourism in the area of the Vrbanja river basin. The methodological procedure consisted of three steps. The first was a desk study, which included a review of data from the available literature and maps of hydrological, geological, pedological, geomorphological, and climate studies of this area. In this way, the geographical basis of the research was created in the form of four thematic maps (relief, hydrographic, pedological, and forest complex maps) using the ArcGIS 10.8 software. The second step was the spatial identification of landscape types in the area of the studied basin. This was done in ArcGIS 10.8 by overlaying and combining the obtained thematic maps of the basin. The result was a map with four general types and 14 subtypes within the Vrbanja basin. The third and final step was the evaluation and assessment of the suitability of each type of landscape for tourism activities. The assessment was made by scoring factors of anthropogenic influence, natural characteristics, and visual impression on a Likert scale of 1–4. The final results of the research show that the high mountain areas with forest and semi-rural type and the hilly areas with forest and rural landscape type have the greatest overall suitability for the development of tourism.

1. Introduction

Tourism and landscape, two important scientific research fields, are closely related, and in the last decade the interest in scientific research in these fields has grown [1]. Their multi-disciplinarity is reflected in different research approaches and methodologies, which mostly imply a holistic approach to character assessment, emphasizing the visual perception and socio-cultural aspects of the landscape [2]. The fact that tourism may not exist without a landscape, and that no landscape exists as such without its observer, opens up a wide range of possibilities and options for tourism and spatial planning [3,4].
The term landscape usually refers to the holistic mutual relationship of humans with the natural and physical environment. This relationship is highlighted in systematization, where natural characteristics are considered first, then socio-economic, technical, and non-material aspects, such as cultural and aesthetic values [5].
Tourism is a complex system with interconnected spatial, socio-economic, historical, cultural, and other components. Constant transformations of dynamic elements in the geospace support the continuous process of transforming the mentioned components of the cultural landscape into tourist supply [6]. Tourism regionalization also takes into account natural conditions [7], while in the geography of tourism, the focus is on the static and dynamic aspects of tourism activity; findings are evaluated and information is synthesized into descriptive, prognostic, and normative models [8].
According to [9], geography recognizes the limits of sustainable resource use. This is also confirmed by research in which natural and cultural resources and their sustainable use are perceived individually [10,11,12,13,14]. Observing the complex relationships and connections between physical and social geography, various interdisciplinary approaches contributed to the research of sustainable tourism [15,16]. According to the definition, sustainable tourism maintains the integrity of the tourist destination, benefits the local population [17], preserves natural resources [18], respects local culture and traditions, provides quality vacations, etc. [19].
The influence of geography and responsible tourism, analyzed in works [20,21,22], shows how geography can change tourist activities, but also vice versa, how tourism can change geography. Geographical changes caused by tourism include changes in the behavior and lifestyle patterns of local communities [17,23,24,25], as well as changes in the attitudes of tourists.
The European Landscape Convention [26] gives a new focus on the improvement of the cultural landscape, which is achieved primarily by applying the results of field research. Following the basic principles of geographical science, direct contact with the landscape enabled the application of a holistic approach to the environment [27]. According to the Convention [26], landscape is a part of the land, as perceived by local people and visitors, which develops over time as a result of the action of natural forces and humans [28]. The most acceptable method for improving it is the one that can fulfill both the sustainability plan and the public participation program, which combines quantitative forms of socio-ecological assessment with qualitative measurements of cultural appreciation of the landscape [29].
An integral approach to the research and protection of landscape areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina was formally established in 2012 by the signing of the European Landscape Convention and the adoption of the Acceptance of the Convention Law. However, apart from the signing of the Convention, the prescribed instruments for its implementation are not clear enough. Issues of the protection of important landscape areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina are approached in a partial manner, whereby the existing diverse legislation is interpreted differently. The Law of Nature Protection of the Republika of Srpska [30] and the Law of Nature Protection of the Federation of BiH [31] recognize the important biological diversity of the areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina where natural and anthropogenic elements exist and are preserved. For the time being, only landscapes included in the areas of national parks, strict nature reserves, nature parks, regional parks, protected areas with sustainable use of natural resources, as well as monuments of park architecture, are protected by the Law. The protection is carried out according to the laws at the entity level of the Republic of Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which emphasize divided responsibilities in the protection of natural values.
The structure and division of responsibilities are completely asymmetric in the two entities, and in the Brčko District. Unlike the Republika of Srpska, in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the general jurisdictions related to the protection of natural and cultural heritage are in the charge of cantonal ministries, while the Brčko District Government is directly responsible. Jurisdictions are further divided between entities and/or cantons and local communities [32].
According to the Law on Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Srpska [33] and the Law on Spatial Planning and Construction of the Republic of Srpska [34], a small number of cultural landscapes are under protection. The Law on Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Srpska [33] recognizes it as tangible cultural property, and the need for its documentation, protection, as well as inclusion in cultural, tourist, and other programs. Tangible cultural assets consist of cultural monuments, spatial cultural-historical entities, archaeological sites, famous places, and the protected environment of immovable cultural assets. The Law on Spatial Planning and Construction [34] recognizes only special-purpose areas such as immovable cultural and historical assets, national parks, tourist areas, spa resorts, climatic, sports, and recreational areas, etc. Therefore, it does not specifically recognize the concept of landscape and does not prescribe measures.
In several other related legal documents on the existing condition and appearance of such areas, such as the Forestry Law [35], the Water Law [36], and the Law on Agricultural Land [37], no relation to the landscape is visible nor particularly recognizable.
After the adoption of the Convention [26], the landscape was approached partially from the aspect of natural values. In the Nature Protection Strategy of the Republic of Srpska, 2011 [38], biological diversity is observed without an interdisciplinary approach. Moreover, the recently adopted Tourism Development Strategy of Republika Srpska 2021–2027 [39] does not directly recognize landscape areas as important tourist attractions.
Landscape areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina have yet to be recognized as basic spatial units of study, evaluation and conservation. Research should be transformed from descriptive to functional, which would be immediately included in legislation and spatial plans. The main purpose of this paper is the identification of landscape characters, the creation of their typology, and the assessment of their suitability for the development of sustainable tourism in the area of the Vrbanja river basin.

2. Study Area

This study was conducted in the Vrbanja basin, which is located in the northern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina and extends between 44°47′39″ and 44°20′44″ north latitude and between 17°12′33″ and 123 17°14′42″ east longitude (Figure 1). The basin area administratively and territorially unites the cities of Banjaluka and Laktaši, and the municipalities of Kotor Varoš, Čelinac, Kneževo, Teslić, and Mrkonjić Grad.
Approximately 99.7% of the catchment area is located in the Republic of Srpska, and about 0.3% (source part) is in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina [40].
As a unique hydrological system, it has a complex physical-geographical position. It is located at the junction of two macroregions, mountain and Pannonian. The river source is at an altitude of 1563 m (Vlašić mountain), and the mouth is at an altitude of 147 m, Banjaluka. The area of the watershed is 803.78 km2, the length of the watershed is 97.18 km, and the maximum width is 30.4 km. The dominant direction of the watershed is northwest-southeast [40,41].
In the hilly and mountainous system (Uzlomac, Borja, Čemernica and Vlašić), Vrbanja River basin predisposes the openness of this area, in the northwest-southeast direction. The M4 route passes through it (Banja Luka—Kotor Varoš—Doboj), and it is of special importance for the economic and overall development of this area and the wider region. The relatively favorable geographical position of the Vrbanja basin area, especially its transport-geographical position, and the relatively stabilizing geopolitical and economic processes in the Republic of Srpska are key prerequisites for the revitalization of the area and the establishment of its sustainable development [41].
The area of the Vrbanja basin is located in the contact zone of the Balkan and Central European cultural circle. Such a position, both throughout history and today, has a strong influence on the course of overall social development. This is evidenced by characteristic historical periods, marked by the strong presence of different empires and civilizations (Rome, Slavs, Turks, Austro-Hungarians). The period of Yugoslav socialism resulted in processes of industrialization and urbanization with the neglecting of rural areas, deagrarisation, and migration to the cities.
The period after the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992–1995) is characterized primarily by the role of economic and social system transition (privatizing industries, market reforms, etc.) and the new problems caused by these processes.
According to the 2013 census, 41,532 inhabitants lived in the basin area [42].

3. Materials and Methods

The research methodology is based on mathematical-statistical and inductive-deductive methods, and field research (Landscape Character Assessment Field Survey Sheet). Spatial planning documents, international and national frameworks, scientific-theoretical approaches, and available research on natural, historical, cultural, and social factors of the development of the Vrbanja basin were analyzed. Graphical and textual data were processed using mathematical-statistical methods and analysis using Geographic Information System (GIS) to determine the character types (Table 1).
The typological characterization of natural and historical elements was done according to the methodology of Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) and historical categorization Historic Landscape Assessment (HLA) [29,43,44]. The procedure of typological classification of areas is based on the analysis of natural components (Figure 2) (hydrographical, relief, vegetational characteristics, and pedological), according to CORINE Land Cover 2018 [45].
Spatial data were used from the databases: Republic Institute for Natural and Cultural-Historical Heritage of RS [46], Nature Protection Information System of Republika of Srpska (ISZP-RS) [47], Geoportal of Republika Srpska [48], Republic Administration for Geodetic and Property-legal affairs of the RS [49], Institute for Construction “IG” Banjaluka [50], Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund of the RS [51], Electronic Land Registers of the RS [52], Register of Cadastral Municipalities of the RS [53], ESRI satellite images Base Map [54], and Google Earth [55].
The ArcGIS 10.8 software was used for the modeling and graphic creation of cartographic representations of landscapes [56]. The thematic maps are overlayed and combined to carry out the process of the identification of areas which have a common character that is checked and confirmed on the field.
For the determination and assessment of landscape amenities, the regional-geographical approach was used [57,58,59,60,61,62], together with the ecological-vegetation approach [63,64]. A guide to the habitat types of BiH [65], the cultural-historical approach [66,67], spatial planning documentation from local communities [68,69], graphic attachments, and field research were also used in this paper.
One of the basic challenges this research faced was the lack of similar previous research in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although numerous studies and works focus on the beauty of this area, it is still not recognized for its resource and development potential. A typology of the landscapes of Bosnia and Herzegovina has not been done, nor has it been evaluated. Therefore, the preservation of its natural, visual, and anthropogenic values is questionable. The fact that we are starting from the beginning directed the methodological approach to the research. The research process included a three-step methodology.
The first step was a desk study of the natural and cultural factors of the Vrbanja River basin. It aimed to create thematic maps of the watershed that would serve as a basis for further analyses. This was done by digitalizing the existing topographic maps of the area in the ArcGIS 10.8 program. Pedological, hydrographical, relief, and vegetation data and maps were obtained (Figure 2).
The second methodological step was directed toward the identification of landscape character areas on the obtained thematic maps. This was done in two steps. The first step was to obtain general types. This was done by reclassifying and overlaying the thematic maps in ArcGIS 10.8. The criterion for data reclassification was relief hypsometry (height zones of relief). Thus, four basic types were obtained (Table 2). The second step was to determine the landscape character areas. Essentially, this meant the concretization of general types in the research area of the watershed. This was done by assigning each general type an appropriate name. For example, the general type is the high mountain, and the specific character area is the Vlašić mountain area (with a spring) (Table 3, Figure 3).
The third and most important step of the research was the overall assessment of the suitability of the obtained types for the development of tourism.
An assessment of the suitability of types was carried out in the field research based on the LCA procedure. The amenity assessment was carried out using a Landscape Character Assessment Field Survey Sheet [70] adapted to the research area. The survey sheet contains a description of the character, a checklist of landscape elements, a checklist of aesthetic and tangible factors (distance, safety, sensory stimulation, movement), observation of the condition (intact physical condition, diminished value of the precinct), photographs, and video recordings.
The assessment was made by scoring factors of anthropogenic influence, natural characteristics, and visual impression on a Likert scale of 1–4 (very suitable—unsuitable) (Table 4). Based on the obtained results, a map of the overall suitability of the type/area was created (Figure 4).

4. Results

4.1. General Types of Areas of the Character of the Basin Area

The typology of areas was obtained by classifying and overlaying data on relief, hydrological and vegetation characteristics, as well as land use (Figure 2). Based on that data, general landscape areas and basin areas were obtained (Figure 3). Specific criteria, such as the historical development of the settlement, anthropogenic influence, and land use have a significant role in landscape research. Four general areas are recognized in the basin: I High-mountainous/mountainous, II Mountainous/sub-mountainous, III Hilly, hilly/moderately continental, IV Riverine (lowland)/moderately continental (Table 2).
Based on visual, natural, and social characteristics, and the relative homogeneity of spatial elements, the geographical position was determined and the character of each obtained area was described.

4.2. Types and Areas of Landscape Character/Landscape Types and Areas

Through the analysis of relief, hydrological and vegetation characteristics, land use, anthropogenic influences, and the preservation of historical objects of each general type, the character areas were determined. By further division, based on natural characteristics, anthropogenic influences, and the homogeneity of structural elements, general areas and character areas were defined (Table 3). They were also determined by geographical location. In determining the designation of the landscape area and its affiliation, those characters that more closely described the area were taken.

4.2.1. High Mountain Landscape Areas/High Mountain/Forest, Faulted, Limestone, Bare, Semi-Rural Landscape Type

High mountain areas are located in the southern parts of the Vrbanja basin and are part of mountain massifs (Vlašić, Očauš, and Čemernica).
Visual characteristics: The visual exposure and openness of the mountain areas of the basin are influenced by the height of the Vlašić mountain massif (1933 m), and it is visually dominant in the wider area. At the same time, this mountain massif offers wide panoramic views towards the northwestern parts of the basin and the Kotor Varoš basin. The relief morphology consists of the Vlašić area in the northwest-southeast. The mountain massif is characterized by fragmentation, which creates a dynamic image of the relief. Visually, the Vlašić plateau (Petrovo polje) where the valley of the upper Vrbanja with its tributaries is cut is especially emphasized. The Vlašić plateau is in the Dinaric direction, sloping from the southeast to the northwest. The natural forest cover and specific relief forms are important elements of the visual recognition of this landscape area.
Natural characteristics: The high-mountain/mountain general type of character of the area is spread over the southern parts of the basin at an altitude of 1300 m to 1600 m, and appears at the same time as a general type and as a high-mountain landscape area of the Vrbanja basin (Table 4). The morphophysiological structure of the southern parts of the basin, represented by the mountain system of Vlašić (1933 m), Očauš (1384 m), and Čemernica (1339 m), is divided and uneven in height. Vertically, in the direction of extension, smaller areas were separated, and were reshaped by river terraces, valleys, and ravines. In the high mountain areas of the basin, the upper course of the Vrbanja River was formed, and complex valley forms are visible.
The Očauš mountain massif—over the Ravno Brdo, Polica, Glavica, and Veliki poljanak—connects with the high mountain area of Vlašić.
The Čemernica mountain massif consists of the elevations of Omarika, Potkres, Košarine, Srebrenik, and Perčin, which is also the watershed between the Vrbanja and Vrbas watersheds. Due to the dominance of limestone in the structure, there is a scarce river network and pronounced water sinking. Groundwater emerges from a large number of wells (the largest wells are Cvrcka and Jakotina).
Structural elements of the landscape and anthropogenic influence: In the past, the Vrbanja valley had important strategic importance in connecting with other valleys (Lašva, Bila, Ugar). In the past, important roads passed through this area. Important spatial landmarks include fortifications and religious buildings built in the villages of Kruševo Brdo, Šiprage, Grabovica, and others.
The visual characteristics of high mountain areas, based on the analysis of natural features, show the uniqueness of natural elements. The natural features created a recognizable pattern of dynamic features of the relief, and together with the structural features of the forest gave the whole area a special value.

4.2.2. Mountain Landscape Areas/Mountain Forest, Pre-Natural, Semi-Rural Type of Landscape

The mountainous areas are located in the western and eastern parts of the basin and are represented by the mountain massifs Uzlomac (1002 m), Borja (1077 m), Tisovac (1173 m) and Osmača (949 m), and descend towards the northwest and central part, towards the Kotor varoš basin. There are rural settlements of the dispersed type (Bokani, Bastaji, Golo Brdo) and natural sites that have historical significance.
Visual characteristics: In this area, emphasized are the natural values of forest ecosystems, which have an important natural and hydrological role. The most abundant forest communities are beech and fir with spruce (Abieti Fagetum illrycum), while white pine (Pinus sylvestris) and spruce (Picea abies) forests are slightly present.
The area’s special natural value is given by the forests located on the dissected canyons and gorges of the tributaries of the Vrbanja (Cvrcka, Jakotina, Vigošta). Forests of relict character are represented by beech (Fagus sylvatica), Arâr (Juniperus phoenicea), black hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia), linden (Tilia), maple (Acer), and white hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis) [63].
In the eastern parts of the basin (Borja and Uzlomac), semi-evergreen forests are visually identified. They are predominantly on western and northern exposures and on steeper slopes. Holly (Ilex aquifolium) is recognized in these forest communities. Next to it, on Uzlomac, there are sub-associations of beech (Rusco hypoglossi-Fagetum) or beech and fir forests with holly (Festuco drymeiae-Abietetum) [65]. Landscapes with an emphasized natural value provide opportunities for the development of various tourist and recreational activities.
Natural characteristics: The mountainous/sub-mountainous general character type of the area extends below the high mountain areas at an altitude of 700 m to 1300 m, and appears as a general type and as a mountain landscape area of the Vrbanja basin (Table 4).
In the eastern parts of the basin, the Uzlomac mountain massif is visible (1002 m). This mountain massif is connected to the mountain massif Crni vrh (546 m) by its slopes through hilly hillock areas (Skatavice, Opsječki, Markovac, and Štrbe).
In the eastern parts of the basin, the Borja mountain massif is visible, and is divided into ravines, valleys, and fluviokarst forms. It is separated from the high mountain areas of Očauš by the Posenjačka river, the Mihajlovac stream, and part of the Velika Usora stream.
On the southwestern slopes of the basin, the Čemernica mountain massif descends into the mountain areas of Tisovac and Osmača. Due to the limestone structure, the appearance of karst springs and springs is emphasized.
Structural elements of the landscape and anthropogenic influence: The mountainous areas of the Vrbanja basin are seldom populated. Historical roads through the Vrbanja valley led to the medieval towns of Zmajevac, Kotor, Gornji Čelinac, and other settlements. The strategic importance of the Vrbanja valley, and the traffic connection of the mountainous areas influenced the settlement pattern and the construction of historical and religious buildings. Villages in mountainous areas are sparsely populated or abandoned. The once-developed system of tracks, which followed the narrow-gauge railways in the Austro-Hungarian period, is neglected today. Rural settlements are characterized by the loss of basic functions, as well as dilapidated buildings and neglected plots.
The particularly valuable natural characteristics (geomorphological, hydrological, vegetation, and pedological) of the mountain area set this area apart from other areas in the basin. The cultural and historical heritage (archaeological sites, historical roads, and religious buildings) also has significant value.

4.2.3. Hilly and Hillock Landscape Areas/Mountain Forest, Agricultural, Rural, Peri-Urban, Historical Type

Landscapes of hilly and hillock areas (Ponir, Crni Vrh, Skatavica, Osmača, etc.) are located in the northeastern and northwestern parts of the basin, and descend towards the Kotor Varoš basin (southwestern part) and the Čelinačka-Banjaluč alluvial plain.
Visual characteristics: In the morphological sense, hilly/hillock areas are defined as uplands.
The distinct visual exposure and openness of the hilly area are influenced by smaller elevations and the surrounding valleys of Vrbanja and Vrbas. From the hilly elevations, there are wide panoramic views of both valleys. At higher altitudes, there are deciduous forests, while the zones of lower hillocks with valleys and riverine areas are inhabited and cultivated.
The hilly areas in the northwestern parts of the basin (Ponir, Osmača) are characterized by a specific geological structure and fluviokarst relief, while the northeastern parts (Crni Vrh, Skatavica) are characterized by diabase-rosin formations, which determine the pedological composition.
The main features of this area are forests, arable land, and other plantations, as well as cultural and historical heritage (forts, fortifications, churches, and other buildings).
There are numerous remains of anthropogenic structures from the past: the medieval towns of Zmajevac, Gradina, Gornji Čelinac, and other settlements, as well as numerous archaeological sites. High greenery has grown around the historical sites, which is why they are not visually noticeable. The natural forest cover, relief forms, and historical objects are the basic elements of the visual recognition of this area.
Natural characteristics: The hilly and hillock and moderately continental climate are general character types of the area, which is spread over the entire basin below the mountain area at an altitude of 400 m to 600 m. This area also appears, at the same time, as a landscape type and as the hilly, hillock landscape areas of the Vrbanja basin (Table 4).
Mountain massifs, smaller elevations, and valleys are visible in the northeastern parts of the Vrbanja basin. The mountain massif Crni vrh (546 m), Benches (553 m), Divan kosa (531 m), and Berino brdo (545 m). This mountain range extends over hilly areas (Skatavica, Opsječko, Markovac, and Štrbe) and connects with the mountainous area of Uzlomac.
In the northwestern parts of the basin, the Ponir massif is visible, slightly undulating, and divided by ravines, torrential streams (Bijeli Potok, Javorak, Duboki Potok, and Kruškovac), and fluviokarst forms.
Structural characteristics and anthropogenic impact: The structural characteristics of this area show a high degree of naturalness, but also the area’s change under human influence. The special values of the landscape are visible in the preservation of forests, watercourses, and how agricultural land is used. Land use is reflected in large areas of corn and wheat. The values of the historic town and fortifications of Zmajevac, as well as other natural localities and archaeological sites, are recognized in the hilly area. The historic area of Zmajevac is a national monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina [71].

4.2.4. Riverine (Lowland) Landscape Areas /Riverine and Rural, Peri-Urban, Urban, Historical Type

Riverine areas are located in the middle and lower course of the Vrbanja River, the Kotor Varoš basin, and the Čelinac-Banjaluka alluvial plain. They stretch from the urban settlement of Kotor Varoš to the mouth of the Vrbanja river in Vrbas.
Visual values: The visual character of the riverine urban area is determined by its prominent position on the banks of the Vrbanja River, attractive river terraces, and contemporary urban structures. The morphology consists of the Kotor Varoš basin, which forms the left and right valley sides of the Vrbanja river. It is characterized by larger and smaller valley extensions where settlements are located. The central part of the Kotor Varoš basin was lowered in recent tectonic activities, which affected its visual exposure from the surrounding areas. The visual character of this valley can be fully experienced from the viewpoint and the surrounding hills.
In the Kotor Varoš basin, the river Vrbanja builds a complex hydrographic network, with a large number of tributaries whose sources are located on the surrounding mountain massifs. In the structure of the area apart from the Vrbanja valley, the longitudinal valleys of its tributaries Kruševica, Jezerka, Hrvaćanska Rijeka, Bosanka, Svinjara, Tovladića, and Đera are visible. Towards the Obodnik settlement, the Vrbanja river valley and river bed are gradually expanding. Wider alluvial plains are also visible, where urban settlements are developing. The Banja Luka basin is the confluence of the Vrbanja and Vrbas. It has a higher population and population density, due to its proximity to the more functionally developed center of Banja Luka.
Different periods of historical development are notable in the cultural-historical heritage; the medieval city of Kotor, in particular. New objects in urban settlements are characterized by the planned construction of residential buildings, with a low proportion of green areas on the associated plots.
Natural characteristics: The riverine (lowland) type extends through the central part of the watershed below the hilly areas at an altitude of up to 400 m, and appears both as a landscape type and as the riverine (lowland) area of the watershed (Table 4).
In the central part of the basin, visible is the Kotor Varoš basin in which the river Vrbanja cut its way through the river bed and forms a river network. The river Vrbanja, near Pobrđe, leaves the Kotor Varoš basin and enters the valley narrowing, which is characterized by bends and straight flow. In the narrowing of the valley, river terraces are visible.
Structural characteristics and anthropogenic influence: The largest part of the riverine area of Vrbanja, in its lower parts, today consists of built urban and rural settlements. The settlements are spread out in a row along the main road and follow the river course. On the outskirts of the city, settlements with agricultural areas and a significant proportion of natural vegetation are visible. With the expansion of urban settlements, the riverine area is increasingly defined in the valley extensions. The riverine urban area is characterized by a large number of historical, sacred, and other buildings, which show the strategic importance of the Vrbanja valley in the past. Among them are the remains of the medieval city of Kotor and other sacred objects that are on the temporary list of national monuments of BiH [68,69]. The area has a recognizable historical pattern of settlements and a specific spatial organization in which urban settlements achieve a good connection with their rural environment.

4.3. Assessment of the Value of Landscape Areas of the Watershed

According to the selected criteria, each defined type/area was evaluated with numerical values. The assessment of the overall suitability of the type/area was calculated by summing up the results of the amenities of the character of the area, concerning the representation of anthropogenic influences, and natural and visual amenities (Table 4).
Landscape areas of the greatest natural value, i.e., areas with the most recognized natural characteristics suitable for tourism development, are high mountains with forest and semi-rural types, then mountains with forest, semi-natural and semi-rural types, and hilly areas with rural and historical types.
Areas with lower natural values are mountainous areas with agricultural and peri-urban types, then riverine areas with lowland, peri-urban, and urban types, and riverine areas with rural and peri-urban types (Table 2 and Table 4).
Areas of great suitability for spatial construction, accessibility for tourism supply, and catering services are riverine areas with peri-urban and urban types, and riverine areas with rural and peri-urban landscape types.
Areas with a rural and semi-rural type, and hilly areas with a rural and peri-urban type but with limited possibilities of providing tourist services, are recognized as suitable areas from the aspect of accessibility (Table 2 and Table 4).
The high-mountain landscape areas of Vlašić with fault and limestone types are recognized as unsuitable due to poor and degraded infrastructure, which is a consequence of war events (1992–1995) (Table 4).
Areas of great visual value are high mountain areas with forest and semi-rural types, then mountain areas with forest, natural, semi-rural, and rural types, and hilly areas with forest, rural, and semi-rural types. These areas have distinct geomorphological, hydrological, and other natural values. Areas of less visually valuable natural elements but with emphasized historical and cultural values are riverine (lowland) with agricultural, peri-urban, and urban types, and riverine with rural and peri-urban types (Table 4, Figure 4).
Landscape areas of great overall benefit for the development of tourism are high mountains with forest and semi-rural types, and hilly with forest and rural types.
Areas suitable for tourism development are mountainous with forest, semi-natural, and semi-rural types; conditionally suitable are riverine (lowland) areas with agricultural, peri-urban, and urban types, and riverine with peri-urban types (Figure 4).

5. Discussion

In the structure of the landscape, natural elements are identified. Because they were created by complex geomorphological processes, this type has a special natural value. By analyzing their morphometric and morphogenetic characteristics, the natural qualities of the landscape and the possibilities of using them for tourism development were considered.
The attractiveness of the relief was assessed through the analysis of landscape characteristics (height above sea level, slope degrees, vertical height interval, and sun exposure). These characters determine the development of tourist and recreational activities such as mountaineering, hiking, mountain and road cycling, bathing tourism, and other activities [6,10,20,72,73,74]. The natural attractiveness of the basin is emphasized by the forms of the valley relief. The valley relief is characterized by waterfalls, cascades, and gorges, which have a natural attraction and as such form an important basis for the development of tourism.
The Vrbanja river system consists of a large number of tributaries of aesthetic value, with their sources on the surrounding mountain massifs. The total number of watercourses in the basin is 2.406, of which 396 are permanent and 2.174 are occasional watercourses. Significant geomorphological forms in the basin are mountains, gorges, pits, and caves. The mountains of Vlašić, Čemernica, Tisovac, Osmača, and Borja are especially important, attracting visitors due to their recreational and other significance.
The basin has a moderately continental climate. The attractiveness represented by the weather conditions at certain times of the year which are favorable for tourist and recreational activities—such as the occurrence of snowfall at higher altitudes in the winter period—is particularly emphasized here. In the area of the basin, the natural values of forests and their role in the development of tourism are especially emphasized.
With their aesthetic values, forests play an important role in creating an atmosphere and protecting from the effects of the weather. Forests are highly important for the development of tourist and recreational activities, both for residents and visitors.
In the Vrbanja basin, rural households are visible, with all the elements of rural identity (stables, stacks of hay and straw, gardens with fruits and vegetables, etc.), which can be put to the function of tourism development. These characteristics show great possibilities for the development of ethno-tourism. Greater involvement in decorating houses and gardens traditionally is needed. Traditional customs are presented at numerous events and performances, and these values are gaining more and more importance. The limiting factor in the development of this form of tourism is unfavorable demographic trends.
The favorable geographical position of the Vrbanja valley, concerning other areas of the basin, can be seen in its spatial organization and anthropogenic influences. Due to natural conditions and pronounced anthropogenic influences in different periods of development, hilly and valley areas have greater cultural potential. These areas are characterized by numerous material remains, which testify to the continuous human settlement in these areas, such as the Illyrian fortifications: Stražbenica Castle, Branešci Castle, Sač Castle, Lađevci Castle, Zmajevac Castle and others, and the remains of the medieval towns of Zmajevac, Kotor and others [68,69].
In the area of the basin, the importance of viewpoints with a panoramic view of natural beauty is emphasized, such as Rujeva Glavica, Ježica, Šepirce and Ljuta Greda on the slopes of Vlašić and others. Views are accessible from the main roads that pass over the mountain massifs.
Research of this type represents a complex task, primarily due to the difficulty of discerning boundaries between natural features and social processes and functions, as well as the multiple and often ambivalent criteria based on which these boundaries are determined.
These difficulties are especially present in areas where cultural and natural elements have intermingled. General problems of landscape typification, of course, did not bypass this research either.
Nevertheless, considering the characteristics of the settlement caused by the relief, and thus the limited anthropogenic influence in the higher mountain and mountainous types, the problems of landscape demarcation in the Vrbanja basin are not significantly present.
Comparing the results of this research with similar research has limiting factors due to the following reasons. The boundaries of the researched area represent the river basin; the borders of the municipalities were changed by the new post-war territorial reorganization of this area; and the researched area was permanently affected by the war and suffered significant consequences.
Considering the widespread use of the methodological approach to landscape research (ELC), it is possible to make certain comparisons of the research findings. Thus, for example, there is a similarity with the assessments of the aesthetic value of the landscape in the research of the Žumberak area in Croatia [75]. The characteristics of the relief’s verticality, that is, the geomorphological and hydrological characteristics of the higher areas have the highest ratings. Analogous to our research, the most valuable types of this area belong to the mountain forest and mountain rural types (excluding high karst areas, which are absent in the Vrbanja basin), while hilly, rural, and mixed types are rated as the least valuable [75].
However, unlike the Žumberak area, the problem of war devastation and socio-economic difficulties in the transition period (which resulted in minimal investments in tourist and transport infrastructure) significantly limit the realization of the landscape potential of the mountain and forest areas of the Vrbanja basin.
The spatial diversity of high mountain and forest areas is highlighted as an exceptional natural resource in research and assessment of landscape characteristics in Slovenia [76,77]. Area hot spots are located precisely in areas of greatest heterogeneity and natural preservation. According to [77], there is a direct correlation between the presence of forest elements, pastures, and watercourses in the landscape, and its attractiveness, which is exactly the case with high mountains with forest and semi-rural types in the Vrbanja basin.
The basic limitations of this research are primarily related to the inclusion of additional analysis factors, especially the socio-economic factor, but also other criteria for area assessment, such as integrity, authenticity, and connectivity.
In the assessment of landscape identities and values, it is necessary to include, in addition to experts, residents of the area, as well as visitors [78]. Further research in this area should lead to the selection and branding of specific areas of smaller size, their delimitation, and proposals for protection measures.

6. Conclusions

Preparation for this research required the use of a large amount of literature, given that it is the first research of this type in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was first necessary to get acquainted with different theoretical approaches to the concept of landscape, research methodologies, physical-geographic characteristics, legislation, and settlement factors. The second step was the field research based on which characters and the current state of the landscape in the area of the Vrbanja basin were determined. After that, an assessment of the suitability of landscape areas of the basin for the development of tourism was made.
During the valorization process, special attention was paid to natural characteristics (relief, forest, water, land), physical impact (geology, hypsometry, slope, exposure, waterfall, tributaries, springs), and the impact of humans and settlements (connectivity, availability of tourist services consumption, cultural heritage objects).
With the aforementioned process, a landscape typology was carried out for the first time in this area. The taxonomy was made in such a way that four categories of the highest spatial rank of the Vrbanja basin were distinguished: 1. High mountain areas; 2. Mountain areas; 3. Hilly-hilly areas; and 4. Riverine (lowland) areas of Vrbanja. By further dividing the taxonomy, subtypes were identified within each of the categories.
The synthesis of all data showed that areas of great overall benefit for the development of tourism are high mountains with forest and semi-rural types, and hilly with forest and rural types. Areas suitable for tourism development are mountainous with forest, semi-natural and semi-rural types, and riverine (lowland) areas with agricultural; peri-urban and urban types, and riverine with peri-urban types are conditionally suitable.
This research established primarily the typology and characterization of the landscape. Future research should consider additional analysis factors, especially the socio-economic factor. In the assessment of the identity and the value of the landscape, it is necessary to include, in addition to experts, the residents of the area as well as visitors. The typology and characterization of the landscape in the Vrbanja river basin should lead to the selection and branding of specific areas of a smaller scale, their demarcation and valorization. Based on that, it is possible to determine measures and procedures for the protection of the area, and for tourist activation in it. Changes in the area are dynamic and can affect the improvement or reduction of landscape qualities. For this reason, it is necessary to make a planned valorization of the cultural and historical heritage, which will be important for the development of urban and other settlements. The urban expansion of the area and the construction of infrastructure must be carefully planned in these spatial conditions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.T.; Methodology, V.R.; Formal analysis, T.M.T.; Investigation, I.M.-T.; Resources, A.P.; Data curation, V.R.; Writing – original draft, T.M.T.; Writing – review & editing, N.Ž.; Visualization, V.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The position of the Vrbanja River basin area in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Figure 1. The position of the Vrbanja River basin area in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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Figure 2. Typology of landscape areas obtained by classification and overlaying of pedological (a), hydrographical (b), relief (c), and vegetational (d) characteristics of the Vrbanja basin, based on which general landscape areas and basin areas were obtained.
Figure 2. Typology of landscape areas obtained by classification and overlaying of pedological (a), hydrographical (b), relief (c), and vegetational (d) characteristics of the Vrbanja basin, based on which general landscape areas and basin areas were obtained.
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Figure 3. General landscape area and landscape types of the Vrbanja basin.
Figure 3. General landscape area and landscape types of the Vrbanja basin.
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Figure 4. Overall assessment of the suitability of the landscape type/area.
Figure 4. Overall assessment of the suitability of the landscape type/area.
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Table
Table 1. Methodological research of landscape areas of the Vrbanja basin.
Table 1. Methodological research of landscape areas of the Vrbanja basin.
IResearch approach
IICabinet research
Natural factorsCultural and historical factors
IIIField research
Landscape elementsAesthetic and visual factorsExisting condition
IVTypology of landscape areas and description
Map of types/areas of characterDescription of types/areas of characterIdentification of key features for the needs of tourism and recreation development
VLandscape qualities in the function of sustainable tourism development
Valuation of LandscapeLandscape suitability
Table
Table 2. General landscape types and landscape types of the Vrbanja basin.
Table 2. General landscape types and landscape types of the Vrbanja basin.
The General Character Type of Landscape/
General Landscape Type		Landscape Character Type/Landscape Type
I High mountain/mountain1.1. High mountain, faulted, limestone
1.2. High mountain, forest
1.3. High mountain, bare
1.4. High mountain, slope, semi-rural
II Mountain/sub mountain2.1. Mountain, forest
2.2. Mountain forest, natural
2.3. Mountainous, semi-rural
III Hilly, mountainous/moderately continental3.1. Mountain, forest
3.2. Hilly, rural
3.3. Mountainous, agricultural
3.4. Hilly, historical, rural
3.5. Hilly, peri-urban
IV Riverine (lowland)/moderately continental4.1. Riverine, rural
4.2. Riverine, peri-urban
4.3. Riverine, lowland, urban
4.4. Riverine, lowland, agricultural
4.5. Riverine, historical, touristic
Table
Table 3. General landscape areas and Vrbanja basin areas.
Table 3. General landscape areas and Vrbanja basin areas.
The General Area of Landscape Character/
General Landscape Area		Landscape Character Area/
Landscape Areas
1. High mountain landscape areas1.1. Mountain areas of Vlašić (with spring)
1.2. Low forest slopes of Vlašić/Vlašićki plateau
1.3. Limestone slopes of Čemernica
1.4. Marl-flysch slopes of Čemernica
1.5. Western forested slopes of Očauš.
2. Mountain landscape areas2.1. The high slopes of Tisovec and Osmača forests, rural
2.2. Montenegrin forests of Mount Borje
2.3. The forest slopes of Uzlomac
3. Hilly landscape areas3.1. Flysch hills Ponir, Crni Vrh, and Skatavac
3.2. The low slopes of Osmača—meadows and arable land
4. Riverine valley plain of the watershed
4. Riverine (lowland) areas of the basin
4. Riverine urban landscape		4.1. Kotor-Varoš flysch valley
4.2. Čelinačko-Banjalučka alluvial plain
4.3. Urban riverine area of Čelinac
4.4. Urban riverine area of Kotor Varoš
Table
Table 4. Overall assessment of the suitability of the landscape type/area.
Table 4. Overall assessment of the suitability of the landscape type/area.
Landscape TypesAnthropogenicNaturalVisualEvaluationRank 1–4Total Suitability
1.1.424104unsuitable
1.2.21141very convenient
1.3.32162convenient
1.4.21141very convenient
1.5.32162convenient
2.1.21141very convenient
2.2.21141very convenient
2.3.32162convenient
3.1.21141very convenient
3.2.21141very convenient
4.1.13373conditionally suitable
4.2.13373conditionally suitable
4.3.13373conditionally suitable
4.4.14383conditionally suitable
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Rajčević, V.; Tomić, T.M.; Medar-Tanjga, I.; Trifunović, M.; Živak, N.; Petrašević, A. The Role of Landscape in Sustainable Tourism Development—A Study of Identification and Evaluation of Landscape Qualities of the Vrbanja Basin in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sustainability 2023, 15, 6121. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076121

AMA Style

Rajčević V, Tomić TM, Medar-Tanjga I, Trifunović M, Živak N, Petrašević A. The Role of Landscape in Sustainable Tourism Development—A Study of Identification and Evaluation of Landscape Qualities of the Vrbanja Basin in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sustainability. 2023; 15(7):6121. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076121

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rajčević, Vesna, Tanja Mišlicki Tomić, Irena Medar-Tanjga, Mlađen Trifunović, Neda Živak, and Aleksandra Petrašević. 2023. "The Role of Landscape in Sustainable Tourism Development—A Study of Identification and Evaluation of Landscape Qualities of the Vrbanja Basin in Bosnia and Herzegovina" Sustainability 15, no. 7: 6121. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076121

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