Analysis of English Textbooks Used in Taiwan: A Perspective of English as a Lingua Franca

Abstract

This study examines English textbooks used in Taiwanese junior high schools (Grades 7 to 9) from the perspective of English as a lingua franca (ELF) and with regard to the national English curriculum. In this study, English textbooks that are currently used in junior high schools in Taiwan were examined based on an analysis framework featuring ELF attributes. These ELF attributes were proposed and enumerated in light of previous studies on the analysis of English textbooks and the national English curriculum. This study revealed that the examined textbooks partially reflected an ELF perspective with the manifestation of the ELF attributes to a different extent. Moreover, it demonstrated that the ELF-oriented content was displayed in various forms of activities and exercises (e.g., listening, reading, writing, and discussion) and that the subject matter of the units covered a wide range of topics. In light of the research results, the author provides suggestions for the design of ELF-oriented textbooks at the junior high school level, such as promoting learners’ awareness of ELF, encouraging the development of intercultural communication strategies in learners, considering learners’ experiences in the learning of English, and entailing meaningful learning of English for learners.

1. Introduction

The English language has been used as a lingua franca (ELF) for international communication owing to the global spread of English. ELF is defined as “English being used as a lingua franca, the common language of choice, among speakers who are from different linguacultural backgrounds” [1] (p. 200). In the international context, English users are mainly non-native speakers (non-NSs) [2]. Consequently, learners of English would mostly encounter non-NSs, whose “Englishes” might be different from those of NSs. English instruction that prefers NS norms may not sufficiently prepare learners to use the English language with individuals from various English-speaking backgrounds [3]. However, English teaching practices, testing, and teaching materials remain to target NS norms [4], which is the reason why NS norms continued to have a strong effect on English learners [5]. The notion of ELF has been examined in the field of English language teaching (ELT). Studies have investigated ELF from various perspectives, such as teachers, students, and pedagogy [6,7,8,9], while some studies have explored approaches to ELF curricula [10,11,12]. Nevertheless, the research of ELT materials through the lens of ELF is scarce [13]. Previous studies of ELT materials have mainly focused on the analysis of cultural content [14,15,16,17] and English users presented in textbooks [18,19,20]. Data-based research on ELT materials from the perspective of ELF is called for as ELT materials “in giving directions for how topics and activities should be implemented can dictate teaching methods or how learning occurs” [21] (p. 78).

In Taiwan, English education has been considered to be integral to sustainable development and global citizenship for learners on the one hand, and on the other hand, English has been taught as a school subject with a focus on teaching grammar and vocabulary conforming to NS norms. In realizing the pitfall of teaching English that conforms to NS standards, the National English Curriculum (NEC) guidelines, stipulated by Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE), indicate the importance of “Global Englishes” and the use of ELF for international communication [22]. The NEC was implemented to equip learners with the ability to use English for communication, and was aimed to promote lifelong English learning and ensure equitable and quality English education for sustainable development and global citizenship for Taiwanese learners [23,24]. The NEC guidelines inevitably influenced the teaching approaches and materials adopted by schools in Taiwan [25]. An investigation of English textbooks used in schools with regard to the NEC guidelines is of significance because English textbooks are the major learning resources for English learners in Taiwan to gain exposure to the language and culture of English-speaking countries. To better prepare learners to use English in the age of globalization, researchers should explore whether and how the English textbooks that are currently used in schools have incorporated an ELF perspective to enhance the quality of English learning for learners. The present study aims to investigate English textbooks that have been adopted in Taiwanese junior high schools (i.e., Grades 7 to 9) concerning the presence of ELF-oriented content in relation to the NEC guidelines. Through a textbook analysis, the author seeks to answer two research questions:

• How do the English textbooks that are used in junior high schools in Taiwan reflect an ELF perspective (e.g., promoting awareness of ELF, encouraging the use of intercultural communication strategies, and promoting multicultural knowledge using English)?
• How is the ELF-oriented content presented in the textbooks, for example, through various subject matter and tasks?

Additionally, the implications that arise from the findings for the development of ELF-oriented English textbooks at the designated level are discussed. As Luo [6] stated, the absence of ELF teaching materials is a challenge that English teachers encountered in providing ELF instruction. Through this study, the author wishes to shed light on the designs of ELF-oriented English textbooks used in the expanding circle such as Taiwan, whereby English teaching has traditionally followed a native-speaker paradigm. Optimally, it is hoped that the suggestions for the development of ELF-oriented English textbooks will help enhance the quality of English education, which will consequently promote global citizenship for learners in Taiwan [23,24].

2. Literature Review

Previous studies of ELT materials have focused on the analysis of the cultural content [14,15,16,17] and English users presented in the textbooks [19,20,26]. With regard to the analysis of English textbooks used at school levels, studies have focused on the analysis of content such as topics, language functions, activities, authenticity, levels of difficulty, and relevance to learners’ language needs [27,28]. Research on English textbooks specifically at the high school level has mostly examined the content [29,30] and has been concerned with course objectives [31], subject matter [32,33], activities [34], and skills [35,36].

Contrarily, a number of studies of English textbooks have investigated English users and uses that are represented in the text and activities. For instance, Syrbe and Rose [37] found that non-native English speakers were not considered as target interlocutors, and British models of English were overemphasized in the textbooks used in Germany. Yamada [38] investigated English textbooks adopted in Japanese junior high schools and found that the diversified uses of English were recognized and that the percentage of expanding circle representation increased in the examined textbooks. Matsuda [39], based on her study of English textbooks used in junior high schools in Japan, stated that textbooks emphasizing the users and uses of English in the inner circle would not sufficiently prepare students to be English users. She suggested that textbooks should include a greater number of main characters from the outer and expanding circles and should assign them roles that are more important than their current roles in chapter dialogues to represent the use of English in multilingual outer-circle countries.

Textbook research has also investigated cultural content in relation to cultural representation. Ke [18] examined high school English textbooks published in Taiwan from 1952 to 2009 and stated that the textbooks should include more intercultural lessons. In the same line of research, Su [40] examined textbooks used in high schools in Taiwan and revealed that among the native English-speaking countries, the United States (US) had the highest percentage of cultural coverage in the text. Similarly, English textbooks used in high schools in South Korea presented US culture as the major source of English-speaking cultures [41]. In addition, the intercultural interactions presented in the textbooks remained at a superficial level and involved only explanations or discussions of “cultural products such as food, travel and festivals” [42] (p. 386). The argument is that US white cultural representation is favored in high school English textbooks used in South Korea and Taiwan. Differently, Robles and Laborda [43] found a limited importance of American culture in English textbooks adopted in high schools in Spain. In comparison, a study of a locally produced English textbook used at the secondary level in Bangladesh demonstrated that sufficient references to international culture and intercultural content helped raise learners’ intercultural awareness and abilities [44].

Rather than analyzing cultural content and the representation of English uses and users in textbooks, few studies have investigated English textbooks from an ELF perspective [13,45,46,47,48]. Caleffi [46] and Asakereh et al. [45] have examined the listening and speaking activities in textbooks that reference ELF features, such as the exposure to various English accents and oral exchanges, reflections on global topics and multicultural content, and opportunities to exploit communication strategies in ELF contexts. Their studies share similar findings in that the examined textbooks did not provide sufficient exposure to linguistic and cultural variations [45] and they lacked tasks and activities that experimented with ELF strategies [46]. Vettorel and Lopriore [48] examined English textbooks used in Italian secondary schools from an ELF perspective on the basis of criteria such as referencing ELF, raising awareness of ELF, encouraging English use outside the classroom, and promoting intercultural communication strategies. They concluded that the examined textbooks failed to reflect an ELF perspective. There was no significant change in the inclusion of ELF-oriented content and learning activities. Vettorel [47] investigated whether the textbooks used in Italian upper secondary schools included tasks and activities related to communication strategies and demonstrated that the communication strategies in ELF were not acknowledged in the examined textbooks. Vettorel suggested that ELF corpora should be used as resources to demonstrate how communication strategies are employed for meaning negotiations in ELF interactions.

To help design ELF-oriented teaching materials, researchers have developed a framework for ELT material design that incorporates an ELF perspective. For instance, Mckay [21] enumerated principles for designing ELF-oriented materials such as relating to the domains where English is used, including examples of English diversity and ELF users, and respecting the local culture. Additionally, Matsuda [49] proposed criteria for evaluating ELT materials with a view of English as an international language, including the following:

• Matching the English varieties presented in the teaching materials with student needs and course focus;
• Raising students’ awareness of English diversity;
• Presenting native and non-native speakers of English;
• Presenting a wide variety of cultures;
• Being appropriate for local teaching contexts.

The aforementioned principles and criteria illuminate ELF-featured teaching materials and can be applied to evaluate English textbooks with a focus on ELF attributes. In Taiwan, English textbooks are used in schools, from elementary through senior high school, and they are developed in accordance with the NEC guidelines, which describe the core competencies, learning content, and learning performance required for Taiwanese students at these school levels. The NEC guidelines stated that the focus of English education for students at the junior high school level in Taiwan was to equip the students with abilities to use ELF for international and intercultural communication. Arguably, the instructional focus on ELF abilities for students at the junior high school level would be emphasized in the design of the English textbooks used in the schools. In view of the NEC guidelines, the ELF-oriented core competencies, learning content, and learning performance required for Taiwanese students at the junior high school level are as follows.

The ELF-oriented core competencies required for students to develop at the junior high school level are as follows:

• A positive and active attitude towards learning English outside the classroom;
• The use of communication strategies (e.g., non-verbal cues) in enhancing efficient communication in English;
• The ability to introduce major festivals and customs at home and of foreign countries in simple English.

The ELF-related learning content for students in junior high schools comprises the following:

• Verbal and non-verbal communication strategies (e.g., requests for repetition, hand gestures, and facial expressions);
• Festivals and customs at home and of foreign countries;
• Global issues and international etiquette.

According to the NEC guidelines, the ELF-oriented learning performance of the students in junior high schools includes the following:

• Using English for communication in various contexts;
• Reaching out for English learning materials outside the classroom;
• Using verbal and non-verbal communication strategies (e.g., requests for repetition, hand gestures, and facial expressions) to improve communication in English;
• Using simple English to introduce major festivals and customs at home and of foreign countries.

As aforementioned, data-based studies on English textbooks from an ELF perspective are necessary to improve the understanding of the impact of ELT materials on ELF teaching, namely, to enable learners to become English users in the age of globalization. The ELF-oriented core competencies, learning content, and learning performance stipulated in the NEC guidelines were incorporated into the framework for analyzing the English textbooks currently adopted in junior high schools in Taiwan.

3. Research Methods

In this study, the author analyzed the content of English textbooks adopted in Taiwanese junior high schools from an ELF perspective. The analysis scheme comprised ELF-specific attributes that were proposed and enumerated in view of the studies concerning English textbook analysis [21,46,47,48,49,50]. The research procedures and the analysis scheme are explained next.

3.1. Textbook Selection

The English textbooks being examined were used in junior high schools in Taiwan at the time of this study. According to the English teachers at junior high schools in Taiwan, the English textbook series commonly adopted in junior high schools were locally published and distributed by three publishers: HL Publishing (HL), KH International Publishing Corp (KH), and NI Book Enterprise Co. (NI) (these are pseudonyms). Therefore, the author chose the textbooks published by these three publishers for this analysis. The decision concerning the use of English textbooks in individual schools is made by the English teachers at the schools after they have considered the appropriateness of the textbooks for their students. For this study, the author selected three textbook series for analysis, that is, one from each of the three publishers. Each of the textbook series consisted of six books with one book being used in one school semester. A total of 18 textbooks were examined. The examined textbook series were published in 2018.

3.2. Analysis Scheme

The analysis framework was developed in view of the previous studies on ELT materials. This framework also reflected the ELF-oriented core competencies, learning content, and learning performance required for students at the junior high school level in Taiwan, as stipulated in the NEC guidelines (see the framework of textbook analysis in Appendix A). The unit of content analysis is each textbook unit. In textbook analysis, researchers must select the unit of analysis that can be studied as a whole, within which factors of change exist. The author considered that each unit in the examined textbooks was complete, in which subject matter, texts, and activities varied, and that it was thus a suitable unit of analysis. The subject matter, texts, and activities presented in a unit were analyzed according to the following attributes:

• Helping learners understand the use of ELF [21,49,50];
• Providing learners with the flexibility of localization in using the English language [50];
• Encouraging the use of English outside the classroom [22,48,50];
• Promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies [22,47,48];
• Promoting awareness of ELF [21,49];
• Promoting the use of English as a tool for understanding global issues [22,46];
• Promoting multicultural knowledge through the use of English [22,46,49].

Questions associated with these attributes were formulated and used as a framework, based on which the author analyzed the content of each unit [48]. For instance, the questions associated with the attribute “helping learners to understand the use of ELF” are as follows:

• Are there references to ELF in the unit?
• Are there varieties of English in the unit?
• What is the variety?
• How is the variety represented?

In the data analysis, a unit could reflect more than one ELF attribute if the texts or activities in the unit were evaluated as such. As aforementioned, the unit of content analysis is each textbook unit. The analysis of each textbook unit was organized into a table presenting the ELF attributes and the content (i.e., the text, exercise and activity) that displayed the attributes. One table contains the data analysis of one unit. In this study, 211 units were analyzed; there were 211 tables as such in the data collection. The research data were a rich collection of information on the examined textbooks that comprised quantitative data (i.e., occurrence and distribution of the ELF attributes in each of the textbook series) and qualitative information (i.e., presentation of the ELF attributes).

The analysis scheme was carefully designed to examine the textbooks in detail, quantitatively and qualitatively, through the lens of ELF. To ensure the validity and reliability of the analysis scheme, the author invited four ELT professionals at the junior high school level to review the appropriateness and comprehensiveness of the ELF attributes included in the scheme. An outside rater was trained and asked to analyze one book in the textbook series produced by each of the three publishers (i.e., three books were reviewed for reliability). Inter-rater reliability was calculated and achieved at 0.95.

4. Data Analysis

A total of 18 books (including 211 units) were analyzed. The discussion of the data analysis is divided into two parts: (1) the quantitative data, namely, the occurrence and distribution of the ELF attributes among these textbook series, and (2) the qualitative information, that is, the presentation of the ELF attributes displayed in the units.

4.1. Occurrence and Distribution of ELF Attributes

Table 1. Analysis of textbook series in terms of ELF attributes (N = 211).

ELF Attributes	NI n (70)	KH n (67)	HL n (74)	N (211)	%
1. Helping learners understand the use of ELF	24	29	7	60	28.44
(1a. Making reference to ELF)	(24)	(29)	(7)	(60)	(28.44)
(1b. Introducing English varieties)	(0)	(2)	(1)	(3)	(1.42)
2. Providing learners with the flexibility of localization in using the English language	9	9	9	27	12.80
(2a. Relating English learning to learners’ experiences)	(0)	(0)	(1)	(1)	(0.47)
(2b. Relating the content to learners’ localities)	(9)	(9)	(9)	(27)	(12.80)
3. Encouraging English use outside the classroom	0	3	0	3	1.42
4. Promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies	0	0	2	2	0.95
5. Promoting awareness of ELF	3	1	2	6	2.84
6. Promoting the use of English as a tool to understand global issues	1	6	3	10	4.74
7. Helping learners develop multicultural knowledge through the use of English	6	5	9	20	9.48

Note: The percentages were rounded up from the third decimal point. HL stands for HL Publishing, KH for KH International Publishing Corp (KH), and NI for NI Book Enterprise Co.

presents the occurrence of the ELF attributes in each of the three textbook series. The data analysis reveals that the attribute of helping learners to understand the use of ELF was the most frequently observed attribute in the textbooks published by NI and KH. The attribute of encouraging English use outside the classrooms was not present in the textbook series published by NI and HL; the attribute of promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies also did not exist in the textbooks published by NI and KH.

Table 1 also presents the total number of units that reflected the ELF attributes. As indicated in Table 1, the top three attributes displayed in the textbook series were as follows: helping learners to understand the use of ELF (60 units), providing learners with the flexibility of localization in using the English language (27 units), and helping learners develop multicultural knowledge through the use of English (20 units), with percentages of 28.44%, 12.80%, and 9.48%, respectively. According to the details of the distribution of the ELF attributes, among the units that displayed the ELF attribute of helping learners to understand the use of ELF, three units contained texts or exercises that introduced English varieties (i.e., attribute 1b, 1.42%). With regard to the units that provided learners with the flexibility for localization in using English, one unit was found to relate English learning to learners’ experiences (i.e., attribute 2a, 0.47%). The three attributes least presented in the textbook series were promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies (two units: 0.95%), encouraging English use outside the classroom (three units: 1.42%), and promoting awareness of ELF (six units: 2.84%).

4.2. Presentation of ELF Attributes

In the prior section, the author revealed the occurrence and distribution of the ELF attributes displayed in the textbook series. To illuminate the presentation of the ELF attributes, namely, how the attributes were manifested in the textbooks through various types of exercises and subject matter, the author explains and describes some of the examples as follows.

Helping learners understand the use of ELF. According to the analysis framework, a unit that is helping learners to understand the use of ELF should contain a text or an exercise that either makes reference to ELF or introduces English varieties. Examples of making reference to ELF are described below:

• In a dialogue, the interlocutors were from different countries and used ELF for international communication.
• A reading text described a Taiwanese family who took a trip to New York City and used ELF for communication.

Examples of introducing English varieties are as follows:

• In a comic shown in a unit, a man from the United Kingdom said football, and a man from the US said soccer.
• In a table included in a unit, the words, underground, subway, and metro, used in the United Kingdom, the US and France, respectively, were introduced to demonstrate the English varieties.
• In a dialogue, a character explained that typhoons are called cyclones in Australia.

Providing learners with the flexibility of localization in using the English language. A unit that displays this attribute would include a text or an activity that either relates English learning to learners’ experiences or relates the content to learners’ localities. For instance, in the following activity, students related English learning to their experience of reading.

• As a discussion activity in a unit about learners’ strategies for studying different subjects, students discussed their reading tips for studying English.

Examples of relating the content to learners’ localities are as follows:

• In a dialogue, the characters were using Google Maps to find directions to a local attraction.
• A reading text introduced food in night markets in Taiwan. As a warm-up activity, students examined pictures and described the weather in different cities in Taiwan.

Encouraging English use outside the classroom. In the textbook series, the exercises that encouraged students to use English outside the classroom were accomplished by students in groups participating in extension activities. For instance, students had to visit a library or search the Internet to read a book (e.g., Alice in Wonderland) and answer comprehension questions. Another example is that students searched the Internet to find information on natural disasters.

Promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies. Two units were considered as promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies. Each of the two units contained a list of expressions used for intercultural communication. One unit contained a list of useful expressions for asking individuals to repeat or clarify an utterance. The other unit contained a list of expressions for checking understanding. These expressions were introduced in the units to promote students’ awareness of intercultural communication strategies.

Promoting awareness of ELF. A unit was labelled as promoting the awareness of ELF when it contained ELF awareness-raising activities or exercises in which students use ELF for communication. Examples of ELF awareness-raising activities are described as follows:

• As a warm-up activity, students chose questions that they would ask when they met foreigners.
• As a writing activity, students first read a dialogue between two interlocutors from different countries and then filled in the blanks with the missing words.
• As a speaking exercise, students examined individuals in pictures and practiced a dialogue of asking where they are from.

The aforementioned activities are intended to help learners become aware of ELF by engaging them in the use of English for international communication.

Promoting the use of English as a tool to understand global issues. Data analysis reveals that this ELF attribute was manifested in reading texts or various types of tasks, and the examples are as follows:

• In a dialogue of a unit, the characters discussed how to protect endangered animals.
• As a listening exercise, students listened to a dialogue of how to protect the earth by using fewer plastic bags, sorting trash, and using water wisely.
• In a unit on environmental protection, students read a text on natural resource preservation and global warming.

These activities and reading texts promote the use of English as a tool by learners to help them understand global issues, such as endangered animals, global warming, and earth protection.

Helping learners develop multicultural knowledge through the use of English. Texts and exercises that help learners develop multicultural knowledge through the use of English are described as follows:

• As an extension activity, students listened to CDs and examined pictures that present phone greetings in different countries (e.g., Argentina, South Korea, France, and the US).
• In a unit on celebrations of the New Year in various countries, the reading text introduced the New Year’s traditions of Vietnam, Brazil, and Russia.
• In a unit on Valentine’s Day around the world, the reading text described how individuals in India, Japan, France, and Italy celebrate Valentine’s Day.

These activities and texts are intended to help learners develop an understanding of cultures through the use of English. The topics related to cultures were introduced in the textbook series, such as festivals, school lunches, table manners, food, special houses, means of obtaining good luck, gift-giving taboos, and transport to school.

5. Findings

On the basis of the data analysis, the findings are discussed in relation to the research questions: (1) How do the English textbooks used in junior high schools in Taiwan reflect an ELF perspective? (2) How is the ELF-oriented content presented through various subject matter and tasks in the textbook series?

5.1. Partially Reflecting an ELF Perspective with a Limited Manifestation of ELF Attributes

In terms of the first research question, this study finds that the textbook series partially reflected an ELF perspective with a slight focus on two ELF attributes: helping learners to understand the use of ELF and providing learners with the flexibility of localization in using the English language. Furthermore, the existence of these two ELF attributes had a disproportionate distribution on attributes 1a and 2b, namely, making reference to ELF (28.44%) and relating the content to learners’ localities (12.80%), respectively. The textbook series included few units in which exercises/texts introduced English varieties (i.e., attribute 1b; three units) or related English learning to the learners’ experiences (i.e., attribute 2a; one unit). The ELF attribute of relating English learning to learners’ experiences was presented in only one unit in the examined textbook series.

With regard to the attribute of introducing English varieties, the study reveals findings similar to those in previous studies [37,40,41], in that the hegemony of US English was maintained in the designs of the English textbooks adopted in Taiwanese junior high schools. The examined textbooks were written in US English, and only three examples of English varieties were mentioned, and merely at the word level (e.g., subway vs. underground, typhoons vs. cyclones, and soccer vs. football). US models of English uses were over-relied on in the textbook series. The study demonstrates that less than one-third of the textbook units (i.e., 28.44%) included conversations and dialogues that feature the attribute of making reference to ELF. Namely, in these conversations and dialogues, characters were from different countries and used ELF for communication. Compared with the previous research on English textbooks [37,39,40] in which English users were mainly from the inner circle, the present study finds that English users from the expanding circle were portrayed in contexts where English was used as a lingua franca.

The findings demonstrate that the textbook units have incorporated the ELF attributes of promoting the use of English as a tool to understand global issues and promoting multicultural knowledge through the use of English; however, the numbers of the units displaying these two attributes were not significantly high, with percentages of 4.74% and 9.48%, respectively. Additionally, very few units in the textbook series displayed the ELF attributes of promoting awareness of ELF (2.84%), encouraging English use outside the classroom (1.42 %), and promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies (0.95%). In line with the previous studies [46,47,48], the low percentages of units displaying these ELF attributes indicate that the designs of the English textbooks adopted in Taiwanese junior high schools did not encourage students to use English for communication outside the classroom and did not help them develop ELF awareness and intercultural communication strategies.

Differing from the research on textbooks that favored the cultures of English-speaking countries [17,40,41], this study demonstrates that the cultures of non-English-speaking countries, such as Brazil, Japan, South Korea, and those in Europe, were introduced in the textbook series. Although less than 10% (i.e., 9.48%) of the textbook units displayed the attribute of promoting multicultural knowledge through the use of English, the author argues that the importance of understanding the cultures of the expanding circle was recognized in the designs of these textbook series as this attribute was presented in each of them. It is essential that ELF-oriented textbooks introduce cultures of the expanding circle to promote multicultural knowledge in English learners. As Yuen [17] stated, English textbooks should introduce foreign cultures in addition to those of English-speaking countries if English is to be learned for use as a lingua franca for international communication.

Compared with the previous studies [18,45,47,48], this study indicates that the examined textbooks partially reflected an ELF perspective and that the ELF attributes were manifested in the textbooks to various but limited extents. Moreover, whereas US English was dominant in the English uses represented in the textbook series adopted in junior high schools in Taiwan, English users and cultures of the expanding circle were acknowledged in the designs of the textbook series.

5.2. Presenting ELF-Oriented Content through Various Subject Matters and Mainly in Reading-Related Activities

As for the second research question, this study demonstrates that the ELF-oriented content in the textbooks covered a range of subject matters, from food in night markets to fast fashion and from Formosan black bears to social networks. Global issues, for instance, anti-bullying, endangered animals, and earth protection were presented in the textbooks. Additionally, multicultural knowledge of phone greetings, table manners, superstitions regarding good and bad luck, and festival traditions was introduced [42].

In the examined textbooks, the ELF-oriented content was mostly presented through texts (i.e., reading or dialogue texts) and reading-related exercises and activities. For instance, a dialogue in which the interlocutors from different countries were using ELF was a manifestation of making reference to ELF (i.e., the ELF attribute 1a). Reading texts and related exercises were also used to display other ELF attributes identified in the examined textbooks, such as relating the content to learners’ localities, promoting the use of English as a tool to understand global issues, and promoting multicultural knowledge through the use of English. Nevertheless, few speaking and listening activities were found to display the ELF attributes. For instance, students listened to CDs and learned about how to be green and save the environment. In this case, the listening activity was designed to promote the use of English by the students as a tool to understand global issues.

Although various subject matters and tasks were presented in the examined textbooks, the data analysis reveals that many of the unit exercises were reading and writing practices. Few learning tasks in the textbook series were speaking and discussion activities. It appears that the textbooks used in junior high schools in Taiwan did not engage the students in the use of English for the negotiation of meaning and verbal communication [47].

To sum up, the findings indicate that the examined English textbooks partially reflected an ELF perspective with a limited manifestation of the ELF attributes. Namely, the designs of the textbooks did not encourage Taiwanese learners in junior high schools to use English for communication outside the classroom and did not help them develop ELF awareness and intercultural communication strategies. Additionally, while the ELF-oriented content in the textbooks was presented through various subject matter, it was mainly in reading-related activities. The textbooks introduced global issues and multicultural knowledge, but did not adequately prepare the learners to use English for international communication. As aforementioned, English textbooks are the major learning resources for Taiwanese learners to gain exposure to the target language and culture. The study reveals that the examined textbooks did not help ensure equitable and quality English education for sustainable English learning and global citizenship for the learners [23,24].

6. Suggestions

In view of the research findings, the author proposes the following suggestions for the incorporation of an ELF orientation in the designs of English textbooks that are adopted in Taiwanese junior high schools. Additionally, suggestions for future studies are put forward.

6.1. Suggestions for ELF-Oriented English Textbook Design

First, ELF-oriented English textbooks that are adopted at the junior high school level should include content and tasks that promote the development of ELF awareness in the students. The findings indicate that few units in the examined textbook series promoted students’ awareness of ELF. The author suggests that ELF awareness should be integral to the development of competent English users, so that they are empowered to use ELF for communication. The tasks for promoting ELF awareness could be those that help learners gain familiarity with English varieties (e.g., non-native varieties) and notions of global English [26]. For instance, as a listening and discussion task, students could listen to conversations between English speakers with different accents and discuss their perceptions of the English speakers whose English might differ from theirs.

Second, the development of learners’ intercultural communication strategies should be emphasized in the designs of ELF-oriented English textbooks. This study finds that the content (e.g., texts and activities) of the textbooks scarcely promoted the use of intercultural communication strategies. Helping learners acquire the ability to use ELF for intercultural communication requires that textbooks include learning tasks that promote the use of intercultural communication strategies by the learners. The learning tasks of this type could be, for instance, a homework assignment in which students search the Internet for information on how individuals from different cultural backgrounds express their opinions in agreeing or disagreeing with others.

Third, the designs of ELF-oriented English textbooks should consider learners’ experiences in learning the English language. The findings reveal that the content of the units in the textbook series barely related English learning to the learners’ experiences. To help learners become aware of and better monitor their English learning, the author suggests that the designs of learning tasks in English textbooks should help learners relate English learning to their experiences. For instance, in a pre-reading exercise, learners could discuss the difficulties that they have encountered in learning English and the learning strategies that they have employed to cope with the difficulties.

Finally, to entail meaningful learning of English for the learners, the designs of ELF-oriented tasks should be language-use-oriented rather than form-focused. The findings indicate that the exercises included in the textbooks were mostly reading/writing practices and rarely encouraged English use by students outside the classroom. These exercises and practices did not engage the learners in using English to negotiate meanings and communicate in context. The author suggests that ELF-oriented learning tasks should engage the learners in using the English language for purposes rather than focusing on the memorization of grammar and vocabulary. Learning tasks that encourage the learners to use English outside the classroom are important to prepare them to use such language for communication.

The above suggestions are proposed for the development of ELF-oriented English textbooks. As stated earlier, English teaching materials “in giving directions for how topics and activities should be implemented” can affect how teaching and learning occurs [21] (p. 78). It is hoped that these suggestions will improve the designs of ELF-oriented textbooks, which will consequently enhance the quality of English education in Taiwan and promote sustainable English learning for Taiwanese learners [23,24].

6.2. Suggestions for Future Studies

The scope of this study was the analysis of English textbooks used in Taiwanese junior high schools from an ELF perspective. The main limitation of this study is that the author was not able to find an adequate amount of studies in the literature concerned with textbook analysis from an ELF perspective as previous studies focused on the representation of cultures or English uses in the textbooks. Additionally, this study is limited as its scope focuses on the Taiwanese context. The author suggests that further research should explore the content and task design of English textbooks used in different educational contexts, for example, the expanding-circle countries, through the lens of ELF, in order to elucidate the development of ELF-oriented textbooks and to promote English learning for international communication [6].

7. Conclusions

In summary, this study examines the English textbooks adopted in junior high schools in Taiwan from an ELF perspective. The occurrence and distribution of the ELF attributes among these textbook series were revealed, and the presentation of the ELF attributes displayed in the textbook units was illustrated. The study reveals that an ELF orientation was partially considered in the designs of the textbooks, and the manifestation of the ELF attribute was limited. The most displayed ELF attributes were as follows: helping learners to understand the use of ELF and providing learners with the flexibility of localization in using the English language, and the least presented ELF attributes were as follows: encouraging English use outside the classroom and promoting the use of intercultural communication strategies. Additionally, the ELF attributes were displayed through various subject matters and mainly in reading and writing activities. Through this study, the author intends to provide insight, systematically and descriptively, into English textbook analysis and, accordingly, make suggestions for the development of ELF-oriented textbooks. Because of the global spread of English, traditional English teaching practices and materials based on NS norms may not fulfil English learners’ needs as ELF users. Thus, the development of English teaching materials integrating an ELF perspective is important in enhancing the quality of English education and promoting sustainable English learning and teaching. It is hoped that the suggestions for ELF-oriented textbooks proposed in this study will serve as a means to this end. While the scope of this study focuses on Taiwan, the author wishes to shed light on the development of ELF-oriented English textbooks used in Taiwan as well as in other similar educational contexts in which English teaching has followed a native-speaker paradigm. Finally, the author hopes that the analysis scheme developed in this study will serve as a reference for individuals who pursue studies that include ELT material analysis from an ELF perspective.