Next Article in Journal
Measuring Residential Satisfaction in Historic Areas Using Actual–Aspiration Gap Theory: The Case of Famagusta, Northern Cyprus
Next Article in Special Issue
For a Sustainable Future: A Survey about the 2030 Agenda among the Italian Geosciences Community
Previous Article in Journal
The Obstruction and Advancement in Sustainable Energy Sector to Achieve SDG in Bangladesh
Previous Article in Special Issue
Reply to Fildani, A.; Hessler, A.M. Comment on “Gerbaudo et al. Are We Ready for a Sustainable Development? A Survey among Young Geoscientists in Italy. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7621”
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 5
10.3390/su15053918
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Brief Report

Effects of Weak Magnetic Fields on Plant Chemical Composition and Its Ecological Implications

by
Alessandro Bellino
1,*,†,
Bruno Bisceglia
2 and
Daniela Baldantoni
1,*,†
1
Department of Chemistry and Biology “Adolfo Zambelli”, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
2
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Sustainability 2023, 15(5), 3918; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053918
Submission received: 22 January 2023 / Revised: 16 February 2023 / Accepted: 20 February 2023 / Published: 21 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exclusive Papers of the Editorial Board Members of section Environmental Sustainability and Applications)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The exposure of plants to weak magnetic fields (MFs) of various intensities and for different times is increasingly adopted to sustainably enhance plant growth in plant-based applications such as modern agriculture, phytoremediation and biogas production. However, little is known about the effects of MF exposure on plant chemical composition, and in turn on related ecosystem processes, such as the transfer of potentially toxic elements along food chains and the decomposition of organic matter. To fill this gap, the present research, through the study of the chemical composition of four edible crops (leaves of lettuce, parsley and basil, and fruits of tomato) differently exposed to weak MFs (75 Hz; 1.5 mT), aimed at evaluating the overall effects of the exposure on ecosystem processes. In particular, several essential (B, C, Ca, Cu, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, N, Ni, P, S, Zn), beneficial (Co, Na, Se, Si) and non-useful (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Li, Pb, Sr, Ti, V) elements, together with chemical compounds and derived parameters (soluble sugars, starch, chlorophylls, flavonoids, anthocyanins, nitrogen balance index), indicators of plant metabolism and health, and litter decomposability traits (C/N, C/P), were analyzed. Notwithstanding the expected variations in the observed effects among species and MF exposure conditions, the obtained results highlight a general decrease in most of the studied parameters (with the exception of those related to litter decomposability), attributable to a lower absorption/accumulation of the studied chemical elements and to a reduced synthesis of metabolites. The largest average reduction was observed for the non-useful elements, which outweighs the reduction in essential and beneficial elements and provides for an important MFinduced effect, considering their toxic, persistent and biomagnificable characteristics. Similarly, the induced increases in C/N and C/P ratios indicate the production of litter more recalcitrant to the decomposition process, suggesting that weak MF treatments may be useful to enhance soil C storage and reduce CO2 emissions.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Magneto-sensitivity is widespread in biological systems and hundreds of studies have found that weak magnetic fields (MFs) can significantly influence their dynamics in various model organisms (plants, bacteria, fungi, animals comprising human beings), although the involved mechanisms [1] and even more how they reflect on ecosystem processes [2] remain largely elusive. Weak MF exposure, up to tens of mT [3], does not emit wastes, does not generate harmful by-products and requires very little power, so it appears an environmentally and economically friendly, sustainable and highly desirable technique in modern plant-based applications [4,5,6].
The whole Earth biota is exposed to a natural stationary magnetic field, called the “geomagnetic field”, ranging at the Earth surface from 25 to 65 μ T [7], and to other magnetic fields generated by different natural and anthropogenic sources [5]. The modulation of the field to which plants are subjected, through their exposure to artificial weak MFs, has been applied in the past years to increase plant growth. The aims span improving crop yields [5,6,7,8,9], plant remediation capability [10,11] and efficiency of biomass conversion into biogas [12]. Indeed, it has been highlighted in different species that MFs improve not only seed germination, seedling growth [6,8,9,13,14,15] and fruit ripening [16], but also plant health and tolerance against environmental stresses [6,17,18,19,20].
Several mechanisms have been hypothesized to be involved [16,19], such as alterations of cell membrane characteristics and cell cycle regulation, with changes in cell metabolism and functioning, including gene expression, protein biosynthesis and enzyme activities [4,7,8,17,21,22]. At the molecular level, radical pair mechanisms have been proposed as a potential unifying explanation for the described MF effects [1]. In any case, the observed responses vary according to the plant species and age during exposure, as well as the MF intensity and exposure time [5,6,7,23,24].
Notwithstanding the strong effects of the geomagnetic field on plant evolution [16] and the evidence that the artificial magnetic fields employed only partly compensate for the 10% reduction in geomagnetic field of the last decades [7], the wrong modulation of MF intensities and time of exposure can turn the artificial MF treatment into a stressful factor [7,25]. In relation to the possible negative effects of MFs on plants, special focus has been directed to the genotoxic and mutagenic effects, affecting DNA integrity and spontaneous mutations [7,26]. Alterations of cell membranes can cause changes in cell electric potential, which in turn can impair the uptake and accumulation of chemical elements and then the synthesis of biomolecules, especially those directly involved in the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy [7,19]. In spite of the relevance of the topic in understanding MF effects on plants and ensuring beneficial MF exposures, little attention has been paid to the chemical composition of plants exposed to MFs, in terms of both element and biomolecule concentrations [7,9]. The relevance of these aspects goes way beyond the food safety issue and pertains to large ecological scale processes such as the transfer of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) along food chains [27] and ecosystem functioning, in relation to the modulation of decomposition and, in turn, the matter cycle by litter chemistry [28].
With the aim to clarify the overall effects of weak MFs on the chemical composition of plants and their ecological implications, in the present research several essential (B, C, Ca, Cu, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, N, Ni, P, S and Zn), beneficial (Co, Na, Se and Si) and non-useful (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Li, Pb, Sr, Ti and V) elements, together with several biomolecules (soluble sugars, starch, chlorophylls, flavonoids and anthocyanins), were analyzed in the edible organs of different species (lettuce, parsley, basil and tomato). Data were also used in calculating specific parameters involved in plant health (nitrogen balance index—NBI) and in litter decomposability (C/N and C/P), in order to outline the ecological implications of plant exposure to weak MFs.

2. Materials and Methods

To obtain realistic evaluations of the effects of weak MFs on plant chemistry and related ecosystem processes, with little bias toward particular species or exposure conditions, the experimental design involved the study of different species subjected to various MF treatments and the analysis of a large number of parameters. Specifically, the study was carried out on four plant species representing important crops (lettuce, parsley, basil and tomato) in the human diet and the most common “vegetables” in the Mediterranean diet, declared in 2010, by UNESCO, an intangible cultural heritage of humanity (http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00884; accessed 26 December 2022). Leaves of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.; Asteraceae) are available and consumed worldwide as a salad crop [29,30]. Leaves of parsley (Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss; Apiaceae) and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.; Lamiaceae) are typical seasonings and are fresh-consumed in large quantities as ingredients in various dishes and food preparations [31]. Fruits of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.; Solanaceae) are one of the most popular and consumed fresh “vegetables” in the world and are also widely used by the food industry as a raw material for the production of derived products [32].
The analyses were performed on leaves of lettuce, parsley and basil, as well as fruits of tomato, from mature and healthy plants subjected to different exposure treatments with weak MFs (75 Hz; 1.5 mT) and were compared with untreated controls, exposed only to the Earth’s geomagnetic field (Table 1), equal to 46.4 μ T in the study area and in the growth period [33]. MFs were generated by Helmholtz coils in order to ensure the homogeneity of the field between the coils.
For each species and each treatment, at least 10 plants were grown in pots at the same environmental conditions (Table 2) and on the same soil (Table 3), irrigated daily with tap water. Pots were kept away from electrical power lines and any other potential source of anthropogenic magnetic fields, to minimize interferences with the generated fields. Three independent samples, obtained by pooling together the plant material coming from three random individuals, were subjected to the laboratory analyses. Before the collection, three leaves of L. sativa for each treatment were analyzed, by means of a portable fluorimeter (Dualex Scientific, Force-A, France), for chlorophyll, flavonoid and anthocyanin concentrations, as well as for NBI, calculated as chlorophylls/flavonoids ratio and related to the nitrogen and carbon allocations.
For all the other chemical analyses, employing analytical grade chemicals and reagents only, fresh plant material was manually pulverized with liquid nitrogen in china mortars and oven-dried at 75 °C until constant weight. C and N concentrations were measured using a CHNS-O Analyzer (Flash EA1112, Thermo Fisher, USA). All the other chemical elements (Al, As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Se, Si, Sr, Ti, V and Zn) were measured on samples obtained throughout a microwave-assisted (Ethos, Milestone, Italy) acid digestion, as reported in Baldantoni et al. [34], by means of inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (Optima 7000DV, PerkinElmer, USA), employing a PTFE Gem-Cone/Cyclonic chamber nebulizer. Standard reference material (SRM 1547 peach leaves [35]) was also analyzed in order to verify the accuracy of the obtained data, with recoveries in the range of 95–102%. Subsequently, the C/N and C/P ratios were calculated. Finally, soluble sugars and starch concentrations were determined according to the Chow and Landhäusser [36] method.
In order to combine the information provided by the different species/exposure settings and obtain average estimates for the effects of weak MFs, meta-analytical techniques were adopted, using the response ratio (RR) as an index of effect size. Notwithstanding the recent emphasis on a few shortcomings of RR in respect to other effect size indices such as the (standardized) mean difference [37], it is still the most adopted metric of its kind in ecology and provides for a straightforward interpretation of results, irrespective of the units of measurement [38,39]. In particular, the mean, standard deviation and number of replicates for each parameter analyzed on MF-exposed and control plants in each experimental setting were employed in calculating RR and estimating the mean effect size ( θ ^ i ) and confidence intervals through random effect models. To this end, RRs of each parameter estimated in the different exposure settings were treated as different studies and grouped into five parameter classes: essential elements (B, C, Ca, Cu, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, N, Ni, P, S and Zn), beneficial elements (Co, Na, Se and Si), non-useful elements (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Li, Pb, Sr, Ti and V), indicators of plant metabolism and health (soluble sugars, starch, chlorophylls, flavonoids, anthocyanins and NBI) and litter decomposability traits (C/N and C/P). Random effect models were calculated independently for each class, and their choice over equal effect models relied on the results of τ 2 profiling. Cochrane Q-tests were performed for each parameter group in order to evaluate the presence of heterogeneity in RRs larger than would be expected based on sampling variability. All the analyses were performed using the functions of the package “metafor” [40] for the R 4.2.2 programming language [41].

3. Results and Discussion

Considerable variations in RRs for the different parameters in the four species (Figure 1) were observed, spanning over four orders of magnitude across the null effect size, without clear trends in relation to the species and exposure conditions. Similar findings in relation to the remarkable variability in plant responses to weak MF treatments have been reported by other authors, e.g., for the flavonoid concentrations in Helianthus annuus [9], and confirm the previously highlighted unpredictability of weak MF effects on plants [42]. Large variations in chemical composition of the exposed plants can be explained by the modulation of MF effects by both direct (plant metabolism) and indirect (soil PTE bioavailability) mechanisms [43] and, likewise, are in common with other stimuli propagating through complex systems, such as soil fertilization [30].
The remarkable variability in RRs is further confirmed by the results of the Cochrane Q-tests, indicating that for the five groups of parameters, i.e., essential, beneficial and non-useful elements, as well as indicators of plant health and metabolism and of litter decomposability, the heterogeneity in the observed effect sizes is always greater (p < 0.001 for all groups) than the one expected based on sampling variability. Accordingly, the I 2 statistics show values from 95.52% up to 99.80% for all groups. Such a heterogeneity among parameters and species results in large confidence intervals on θ ^ i estimates for most of the groups of parameters (Figure 2), especially in the case of beneficial and non-useful elements. The latter, in particular, are remarkable in showing the largest absolute effect size ( θ ^ = −19.44%), but with an associated p-value that is marginally significant (p = 0.0390). Such an effect on non-useful elements contrasts with MF effects on essential elements, showing a lower absolute MF-induced reduction in concentrations ( θ ^ = −7.60%), but with tighter confidence intervals and a lower p-value (p = 0.0002). Overall, for all the groups of parameters with the only exception of the litter decomposability traits, random effects models estimate negative θ ^ i , i.e., a reduction in parameter values induced by the weak MF exposures (Figure 2), attributable to a lower absorption/accumulation of the studied chemical elements and to a reduced synthesis of metabolites. In this context, the positive mean effect size ( θ ^ = +5.70%, p = 0.0949) observed in the case of the litter decomposability traits is attributable to a larger relative reduction in the concentrations of N and P in respect to C.
In contrast to our results about the average decrease in the essential and beneficial elements (Figure 2), a positive effect of MFs on plant nutrient uptake is usually expected [7,19] and often documented. For example, Eşitken and Turan [25] reported increased concentrations of Ca, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, N and Zn, and decreased concentrations of P and S in Fragaria x ananassa leaves from plants exposed to 0.384 T at 50 Hz MF in respect to the unexposed plants, concluding that MFs play an important role in ion uptake capacity, with increases for the immobile cations and decreases for the mobile anions. Similar findings were obtained by Dhawi and Al-Khayri [44], who reported that increasing the time of exposure (from 1 to 15 min) of Phoenix dactylifera seedlings to 1500 mT at 10 mHz to 63 kHz MF increased the concentrations of Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na and Zn, but decreased P concentration as compared to the control. Finally, Radhakrishnan and Kumari [4] found a considerable increase in Cu, K, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na and Zn concentrations (but reduced Ca concentrations) in Glycine max seedlings from seeds exposed for 20 days (for 5 h/day), to 1.5 μ T at 10 Hz MF.
In the present research, the highest average MF-induced reduction was observed for plant non-useful element concentrations (Figure 2), reassuring consumers (at least for PTEs) on the question recently raised by Radhakrishnan [19]: “Is there any toxicity due to the consumption of MF treated foods?”. In particular, two toxic non-useful elements that are potentially carcinogenic for human beings [45], Cd and Pb, always decreased in tomato fruits from plants treated at the seed stage, whereas they showed wide variations (from reduced to increased concentrations) in lettuce, parsley and basil leaves (Figure 1). In this context, it should be considered that lettuce usually has large Cd accumulation capabilities [29,30] and the MF-induced reduction in concentrations observed in several cases warrants further exploration in searching for optimal exposure conditions. In contrast to our average estimates, exposure of Triticum aestivum seeds to static MFs of 600 mT caused a significant increase in Cd and Pb leaf concentrations of the obtained seedlings [18]. Similar results were reported by Luo and co-workers, who found higher Cd and Pb leaf concentrations in Eucalyptus globulus [10] and Noccaea caerulescens [11] treated with static MFs before sowing, with increasing values at increasing intensities (from 30 to 400 mT).
Overall, the average reduction of the non-useful elements in the studied crops outweighs the reduction of the essential and beneficial elements and provides for an important MF-induced effect, considering the persistent and biomagnificable characteristics of most of the non-useful elements. However, the significant reduction in essential elements observed in the exposed crops (Figure 2) might still pose risks to human health in terms of intake deficiencies. Indeed, at least 25 chemical elements are essentials for humans, and plants are their main providers [46,47]. Luckily, among the main elements responsible (Ca, Cu, Fe, I, Mg, Se, Zn) for the major deficiencies [48], there are elements that marginally contribute to the observed lowering of essential element concentrations, and do so only in particular species and exposure conditions (Figure 1). Moreover, the risk of high intake toxicity from several of these elements [46] should not be underestimated and the 8% reduction in essential elements may prove influential or even beneficial, depending on the diet and exposure to environmental sources of these elements. As a future perspective, it remains to clarify if the observed findings on the reduced chemical element concentrations in treated plants would be due to direct (on plant) or indirect (soil-mediated) effects.
The general decrease observed in chemical elements reverberates with the average reduction in metabolism and health indicators (Figure 2), generally increasing in MF-treated plants. For example, Chen and co-workers [49] reported increased concentrations of proteins (and several amino acids), soluble sugars and anthocyanins in Vigna radiata plants from seeds exposed to 600 mT static MF. Notwithstanding the transport of carbohydrates and other metabolites from the sites of synthesis to the distant growth zones and fruits could be stimulated at low MF intensities [19,25], reduction in biomolecule synthesis or allocation has been sometimes reported in several plant species differently exposed to MFs, as in the case of total carbohydrates in Citrus aurantifolia [17], and of photosynthetic pigments in Zea mays [50] and Robinia pseudoacacia [51]. Generally, MF exposure disturbs biological system stability, acting as a stressful factor translating into an increase in photosynthetic pigments as a defense mechanism [7]. In the present study, however, despite the generally slower metabolism observed in the exposed plants, no increase in photosynthetic pigments nor in anthocyanins, mainly produced to develop resistance to a number of environmental stresses [52], was observed (Figure 1), suggesting no adverse effect of the applied MFs triggering defense mechanisms. Such a hypothesis is also supported by the similar or better morphological characteristics of the exposed mature plants as compared to the respective control plants (data not shown).
The induced average increases in C/N and C/P ratios (Figure 2), largely dependent on N and P reductions in the exposed plants (Figure 1), indicate the production of litter more recalcitrant to the decomposition process [53,54]. Since these traits explain the majority of the variation in decomposition rates [53] and in global C cycling [54], the obtained findings suggest that weak MF treatments may be useful to enhance soil C storage and reduce CO 2 emissions, a priority objective for the United Nation Decade of Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) (https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/; accessed 8 January 2023) aimed to “prevent, halt and reverse the degradation of ecosystems on every continent”, also fighting climate change. In the context of sustainable agriculture, such considerations further strengthen the need for carefully evaluating plant quality, especially when emerging technologies are adopted, in order to ensure not only consumer, but also ecosystem health.

4. Conclusions

The choice of evaluating the effects of weak magnetic fields on plants through the investigation of different species and exposure conditions (life stage and time), as well as the meta-analytical approach adopted, allow drawing generalizable ecological effects. Indeed, in spite of the large variations in plant responses to weak magnetic fields, general reductions in essential, beneficial and non-useful element concentrations, as well as in biomolecule synthesis, were observed, indicating measurable effects of magnetic fields on plant chemistry. The large variability makes such effects hardly predictable, probably because of their modulation by several direct and indirect mechanisms, but they have, nonetheless, the potential to affect PTE transfer along food chains and matter cycle. An example is provided by the larger relative reduction in non-useful elements (bioaccumulable and biomagnificable) in respect to the essential elements, representing a meaningful finding for the higher trophic levels, including people using crops as food. Likewise, important ecological implications of plant exposure to weak magnetic fields regard the quality of the produced litter, which is less decomposable due to higher C/N and C/P ratios and with potential benefits for longer soil C storage and reduced CO 2 emissions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, A.B., B.B. and D.B.; Investigation, data curation and writing—original draft preparation, A.B. and D.B.; Writing—review and editing, A.B., B.B. and D.B.; Funding acquisition, D.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the University of Salerno (Italy), grant number ORSA217524.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Laboratorio Analisi Cliniche IGEA (Carpi, MO, Italy) for the provision of the coils, and TERRAMORE Soc. Coop. (Eboli, SA, Italy) for hosting the experimentation and for the provision of the data on soil characteristics.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
MFMagnetic Field
RRResponse Ratio
PTEPotentially Toxic Element
NBINitrogen Balance Index

References

  1. Zadeh-Haghighi, H.; Simon, C. Magnetic field effects in biology from the perspective of the radical pair mechanism. J. R. Soc. Interface 2022, 19, 20220325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Malkemper, E.; Tscheulin, T.; Vanbergen, A.; Vian, A.; Balian, E.; Goudeseune, L. The Impacts of Artificial Electromagnetic Radiation on Wildlife (Flora and Fauna). Current Knowledge Overview: A Background; Technical report, A report of the EKLIPSE project; EKLIPSE Mechanism: Glasgow, Scotland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  3. Lyu, W.; Song, Q.; Shi, J.; Wang, H.; Wang, B.; Hu, X. Weak magnetic field affected microbial communities and function in the A/O/A sequencing batch reactors for enhanced aerobic granulation. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2021, 266, 118537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Radhakrishnan, R.; Ranjitha Kumari, B. Pulsed magnetic field: A contemporary approach offers to enhance plant growth and yield of soybean. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2012, 51, 139–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Nyakane, N.E.; Markus, E.D.; Sedibe, M.M. The effects of magnetic fields on plants growth: A comprehensive review. ETP Int. J. Food Eng. 2019, 5, 79–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Sarraf, M.; Kataria, S.; Taimourya, H.; Santos, L.; Menegatti, R.; Jain, M.; Ihtisham, M.; Liu, S. Magnetic field (MF) applications in plants: An overview. Plants 2020, 9, 1139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Dhawi, F. Why magnetic fields are used to enhance a plant’s growth and productivity? Annu. Res. Rev. Biol. 2014, 4, 886–896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Vashisth, A.; Nagarajan, S. Effect on germination and early growth characteristics in sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seeds exposed to static magnetic field. J. Plant Physiol. 2010, 167, 149–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bukhari, S.; Tanveer, M.; Mustafa, G.; Zia-Ud-Den, N. Magnetic field stimulation effect on germination and antioxidant activities of presown hybrid seeds of sunflower and its seedlings. J. Food Qual. 2021, 5594183, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Luo, J.; He, W.; Xing, X.; Wu, J.; Gu, X. The phytoremediation efficiency of Eucalyptus globulus treated by static magnetic fields before sowing. Chemosphere 2019, 226, 891–897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Luo, J.; He, W.; Yang, D.; Wu, J.; Sophie. Gu, X. Magnetic field enhance decontamination efficiency of Noccaea caerulescens and reduce leaching of non-hyperaccumulated metals. J. Hazard. Mater. 2019, 368, 141–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Litti, Y.; Kovalev, D.; Kovalev, A.; Katraeva, I.; Russkova, Y.; Nozhevnikova, A. Increasing the efficiency of organic waste conversion into biogas by mechanical pretreatment in an electromagnetic mill. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2018, 1111, 012013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Ahamed, M.; Elzaawely, A.; Bayoumi, Y. Effect of magnetic field on seed germination, growth and yield of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Asian J. Crop. Sci. 2013, 5, 286–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Asadi Samani, M.; Pourakbar, L.; Azimi, N. Magnetic field effects on seed germination and activities of some enzymes in cumin. Life Sci. J. 2013, 10, 323–328. [Google Scholar]
  15. Martinez, E.; Florez, M.; Carbonell, M.V. Stimulatory effect of the magnetic treatment on the germination of cereal seeds. Int. J. Environ. Agric. Biotechnol. 2017, 2, 375–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Maffei, M. Magnetic field effects on plant growth, development, and evolution. Front. Plant Sci. 2014, 5, 445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Abdollahi, F.; Niknam, V.; Ghanati, F.; Masroor, F.; Noorbakhsh, S. Biological effects of weak electromagnetic field on healthy and infected lime (Citrus aurantifolia) trees with phytoplasma. Sci. World J. 2012, 2012, 716929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Chen, Y.P.; Chen, D.; Liu, Q. Exposure to a magnetic field or laser radiation ameliorates effects of Pb and Cd on physiology and growth of young wheat seedlings. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2017, 169, 171–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Radhakrishnan, R. Magnetic field regulates plant functions, growth and enhances tolerance against environmental stresses. Physiol. Mol. Biol. Plants 2019, 25, 1107–1119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Ulgen, C.; Yildirim, A.; Sahin, G.; Turker, A. Do magnetic field applications affect in vitro regeneration, growth, phenolic profiles, antioxidant potential and defense enzyme activities (SOD, CAT and PAL) in lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.)? Ind. Crop. Prod. 2021, 169, 113624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Stange, B.; Rowland, R.; Rapley, B.; Podd, J. ELF magnetic fields increase amino acid uptake into Vicia faba L. roots and alter ion movement across the plasma membrane. Bioelectromagnetics 2002, 23, 347–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Atak, Ç.; Çelik, Ö.; Alikamanoğlu, S.; Rzakoulieva, A. Stimulation of regeneration by magnetic field in soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) tissue cultures. J. Cell Mol. Biol. 2003, 2, 113–119. [Google Scholar]
  23. Moon, J.D.; Chung, H.S. Acceleration of germination of tomato seed by applying AC electric and magnetic fields. J. Electrost. 2000, 48, 103–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Takimoto, K.; Yaguchi, H.; Miyakoshi, J. Extremely low frequency magnetic fields suppress the reduction of germination rate of Arabidopsis thaliana seeds kept in saturated humidity. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2001, 65, 2552–2554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Eşitken, A.; Turan, M. Alternating magnetic field effects on yield and plant nutrient element composition of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa cv. camarosa). Acta Agric. Scand. Sect. B Soil and Plant Sci. 2004, 54, 135–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. McCann, J.; Dietrich, F.; Rafferty, C. The genotoxic potential of electric and magnetic fields: An update. Mutat. Res. Rev. Mutat. Res. 1998, 411, 45–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Gall, J.; Boyd, R.; Rajakaruna, N. Transfer of heavy metals through terrestrial food webs: A review. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015, 187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. Ge, X.; Zeng, L.; Xiao, W.; Huang, Z.; Geng, X.; Tan, B. Effect of litter substrate quality and soil nutrients on forest litter decomposition: A review. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2013, 33, 102–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Baldantoni, D.; Morra, L.; Zaccardelli, M.; Alfani, A. Cadmium accumulation in leaves of leafy vegetables. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2016, 123, 89–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Baldantoni, D.; Bellino, A.; Cicatelli, A.; Castiglione, S. Influence of the choice of cultivar and soil fertilization on PTE concentrations in Lactuca sativa L. in the framework of the regenerative agriculture revolution. Land 2021, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Snoussi, M.; Dehmani, A.; Noumi, E.; Flamini, G.; Papetti, A. Chemical composition and antibiofilm activity of Petroselinum crispum and Ocimum basilicum essential oils against Vibrio spp. strains. Microb. Pathog. 2016, 90, 13–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Baldantoni, D.; Bellino, A.; Alfani, A. Soil compost amendment enhances tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) quality. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2016, 96, 4082–4088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Chulliat, A.; Alken, P.; Nair, M. The US/UK World Magnetic Model for 2020–2025: Technical Report; National Centers for Environmental Information, NOAA: Asheville, NC, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Baldantoni, D.; Ligrone, R.; Alfani, A. Macro- and trace-element concentrations in leaves and roots of Phragmites australis in a volcanic lake in Southern Italy. J. Geochem. Explor. 2009, 101, 166–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. NIST. SRM 1547—Peach Leaves; Technical Report, National Institute of Standards and Technology; U.S. Department of Commerce: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  36. Chow, P.; Landhäusser, S. A method for routine measurements of total sugar and starch content in woody plant tissues. Tree Physiol. 2004, 24, 1129–1136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Bakbergenuly, I.; Hoaglin, D.; Kulinskaya, E. Estimation in meta-analyses of response ratios. BMC Med Res. Methodol. 2020, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Hedges, L.; Gurevitch, J.; Curtis, P. The meta-analysis of response ratios in experimental ecology. Ecology 1999, 80, 1150–1156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Lajeunesse, M. Bias and correction for the log response ratio in ecological meta-analysis. Ecology 2015, 96, 2056–2063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Viechtbauer, W. Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. J. Stat. Softw. 2010, 36, 1–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  42. Abdollahi, F.; Amiri, H.; Niknam, V.; Ghanati, F.; Mahdigholi, K. Effects of static magnetic fields on the antioxidant system of almond seeds. Russ. J. Plant Physiol. 2019, 66, 299–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Abou El-Yazied, A.; El-Gizawy, A.; Khalf, S.; El-Satar, A.; Shalaby, O. Effect of magnetic field treatments for seeds and irrigation water as well as N, P and K levels on productivity of tomato plants. J. Appl. Sci. Res. 2012, 8, 2088–2099. [Google Scholar]
  44. Dhawi, F.; Al-Khayri, J. The effect of magnetic resonance imaging on date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) elemental composition. Commun. Biometry Crop. Sci. 2009, 4, 14–20. [Google Scholar]
  45. Aendo, P.; Netvichian, R.; Thiendedsakul, P.; Khaodhiar, S.; Tulayakul, P. Carcinogenic risk of Pb, Cd, Ni, and Cr and critical ecological risk of Cd and Cu in soil and groundwater around the municipal solid waste open dump in central Thailand. J. Environ. Public Health 2022, 3062215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Nieder, R.; Benbi, D.K.; Reichl, F.X. Soil Components and Human Health; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. El-Ramady, H.; Hajdú, P.; Töros, G.; Badgar, K.; Llanaj, X.; Kiss, A.; Abdalla, N.; Omara, A.E.D.; Elsakhawy, T.; Elbasiouny, H.; et al. Plant nutrition for human health: A pictorial review on plant bioactive compounds for sustainable agriculture. Sustainability 2022, 14, 8329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Stein, A.J. Global impacts of human mineral malnutrition. Plant Soil 2009, 335, 133–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Chen, Y.P.; He, J.M.; Li, R. Effects of magnetic fields pretreatment of mungbean seeds on sprout yield and quality. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2012, 11, 8932–8937. [Google Scholar]
  50. Răcuciu, M.; Creanga, D.E.; Amorariei, C. Biochemical changes induced by low frequency magnetic field exposure of vegetal organisms. Rom. J. Phys. 2007, 52, 601–606. [Google Scholar]
  51. Răcuciu, M.; Creangǎ, D.; Cǎlugǎru, G. The influence of extremely low frequency magnetic field on tree seedlings. Rom. Rep. Phys. 2008, 53, 361–367. [Google Scholar]
  52. Chalker-Scott, L. Environmental significance of anthocyanins in plant stress responses. Photochem. Photobiol. 1999, 70, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Zhou, G.; Zhang, J.; Qiu, X.; Wei, F.; Xu, X. Decomposing litter and associated microbial activity responses to nitrogen deposition in two subtropical forests containing nitrogen-fixing or non-nitrogen-fixing tree species. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 12934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Liao, C.; Long, C.; Zhang, Q.; Cheng, X. Stronger effect of litter quality than micro-organisms on leaf and root litter C and N loss at different decomposition stages following a subtropical land use change. Funct. Ecol. 2022, 36, 896–907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 15 03918 g001 550
Figure 1. RRs, plotted on logarithmic scale, for each parameter measured in the different species, indicated in different colors and symbols, under the various experimental conditions.
Figure 1. RRs, plotted on logarithmic scale, for each parameter measured in the different species, indicated in different colors and symbols, under the various experimental conditions.
Sustainability 15 03918 g001
Sustainability 15 03918 g002 550
Figure 2. Effect size for the different parameter classes estimated through the random effect models, with indication of the confidence intervals. Symbols for θ ^ i are colored according to the respective p-value, indicated by the logarithmic color bar.
Figure 2. Effect size for the different parameter classes estimated through the random effect models, with indication of the confidence intervals. Symbols for θ ^ i are colored according to the respective p-value, indicated by the logarithmic color bar.
Sustainability 15 03918 g002
Table
Table 1. MF treatments performed on seeds or plants of the studied species, with the indication of the exposure time and the sampling time after the transplanting (L. sativa and S. lycopersicum) or the first exposure (P. crispum and O. basilicum).
Table 1. MF treatments performed on seeds or plants of the studied species, with the indication of the exposure time and the sampling time after the transplanting (L. sativa and S. lycopersicum) or the first exposure (P. crispum and O. basilicum).
SpeciesLife StageExposure TimeSampling Time
L. sativaseed4 h/day for 0, 40, 110 and 150 days70 and 150 days
P. crispumplant0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 h/day for 10 days15 days
O. basilicumplant0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 h/day for 10 days15 days
S. lycopersicumseed8 h/day for 0 and 10 days90 days
Table
Table 2. Monthly average environmental conditions at the growing site (40.5547° N, 14.9585° E, 17 m a.s.l.) during crop cultivation (Spring–Summer 2021). Data, accessed on 13 February 2023, were retrieved from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (https://gml.noaa.gov/grad/solcalc/) and from a wheather archive (https://www.ilmeteo.it/portale/archivio-meteo/Eboli/2021).
Table 2. Monthly average environmental conditions at the growing site (40.5547° N, 14.9585° E, 17 m a.s.l.) during crop cultivation (Spring–Summer 2021). Data, accessed on 13 February 2023, were retrieved from the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (https://gml.noaa.gov/grad/solcalc/) and from a wheather archive (https://www.ilmeteo.it/portale/archivio-meteo/Eboli/2021).
AprilMayJuneJulyAugust
Daylight hours13.314.415.014.613.7
Minimum temperature (°C)13.719.224.727.127.5
Maximum temperature (°C)17.122.228.430.130.9
Rainy days51710
Relative humidity (%)59.760.153.053.050.3
Wind speed (Km/h)12.212.511.012.112.7
Table
Table 3. Soil chemical and physical characteristics. Data are reported as x ¯ ± 2 σ , where available.
Table 3. Soil chemical and physical characteristics. Data are reported as x ¯ ± 2 σ , where available.
ValueUnit
Skeleton43 ± 6g/Kg
Coarse sand132 ± 4g/Kg
Fine sand71 ± 2g/Kg
Coarse silt36 ± 1g/Kg
Fine silt452 ± 15g/Kg
Clay309 ± 10g/Kg
pH w a t e r 8.1 ± 1.5–
Electrical conductivity44.2 ± 3.0mS/m
Total CaCO 3 17 ± 6g/Kg
Active CaCO 3 5 ± 2g/Kg
Organic matter18 ± 4g/Kg
Organic C10.4 ± 2.0g/Kg
Total N1.64 ± 0.20g/Kg
Extractable P67 ± 13mg/Kg P
Exchangeable Ca3862.9 ± 229.0mg/Kg Ca
Exchangeable Mg459.6 ± 27.0mg/Kg Mg
Exchangeable Na76.1 ± 7.0mg/Kg Na
Exchangeable K538.0 ± 20.1mg/Kg K
Cation exchange capacity25meq/100g
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Bellino, A.; Bisceglia, B.; Baldantoni, D. Effects of Weak Magnetic Fields on Plant Chemical Composition and Its Ecological Implications. Sustainability 2023, 15, 3918. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053918

AMA Style

Bellino A, Bisceglia B, Baldantoni D. Effects of Weak Magnetic Fields on Plant Chemical Composition and Its Ecological Implications. Sustainability. 2023; 15(5):3918. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053918

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bellino, Alessandro, Bruno Bisceglia, and Daniela Baldantoni. 2023. "Effects of Weak Magnetic Fields on Plant Chemical Composition and Its Ecological Implications" Sustainability 15, no. 5: 3918. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15053918

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop