Collaborative Consumption in an Emerging Market: What Motivates Consumers to Adopt It under Economic and Political Uncertainty?

Abstract

This study presents a consumption model tailored for emerging markets beyond BRICS, which considers the advantages of a sharing economy service and its impact on user behavioral intention. Moreover, it integrates moderating variables to enhance the understanding of consumer behavior toward adopting collaborative consumption services, making two significant contributions to the existing literature. By drawing data from 270 customers from Chile and utilizing variance-based structural equation modeling along with partial least squares techniques that use SmartPLS, the research findings highlight that convenience and enjoyment play the most pivotal roles in influencing consumer behavioral intention. Additionally, the study reveals that gender significantly moderates the relationship between convenience and purchase intention. Overall, this research sheds light on the potential of sharing economy services in emerging markets, providing valuable insights into consumer preferences and behavior, which can prove beneficial for businesses and policymakers alike.

1. Introduction

Over time, technological advancements have significantly influenced consumers’ behaviors regarding their needs and preferences. Historically, owning a product was the prevailing method for consumers to access it, but Matzler et al. [1] highlight that an increasing number of individuals now prefer paying for temporary access whether by financial gain, practical usefulness, a feeling of belonging, or even sustainability considerations [2]. Consequently, numerous firms have entered the market, leveraging digital technologies and disruptive business models to embrace collaborative consumption, displacing traditional market leaders through their innovative practices that promote temporal access to goods and services, rather than ownership.

The rising popularity of collaborative consumption models has led to extensive research from various perspectives [3]. However, there remains room for further development, particularly in distinguishing concepts like the sharing economy and collaborative consumption in the context of emerging markets [3,4]. To address this gap, this study aims to explore the following research question: Which relevant aspects may help to explain consumers’ behavior and motivations that incentivize their participation in collaborative consumption in emerging markets during uncertain times?

To address the research question, we employ quantitative techniques on a sample of 270 Uber customers in an emerging market country (Chile). Additionally, we adopt Bardhi and Eckhardt’s [5] definition of collaborative consumption, emphasizing an exchange where transactions occur as a transfer of ownership and are mediated by the market. Moreover, following Benoit et al.’s [4] framework, we recognize the participation of three key players: platform providers, peer service providers, and customers, all facilitated through market mechanisms.

Previous studies have investigated collaborative consumption and related phenomena. For instance, Bardhi and Eckhardt [5] defined car sharing as access-based consumption and studied Zipcar through 40 interviews in Boston, MA, USA. Kim et al. [6] explored the factors influencing users’ trust in the service platform using Airbnb guest interviews in South Korea. More recently, Luri Minami et al. [3] studied consumer behavior differences between sharing economy and collaborative consumption with 400 participants in Brazil. Additionally, Kim and Yoon [7] examined social capital as a motivation for collaborative consumption participation in South Korea, surveying 235 respondents. However, most of these studies were conducted in stable settings, including developed markets and large BRICS countries.

Thus, this study aims to contribute to the literature by investigating collaborative consumption motivation within Uber in an emerging market, specifically in Chile during times of political uncertainty. Even if Uber is a well-known company used as an example in various research [3,4,6,8]. Chile serves as an excellent research sample for various reasons. It is an emerging market where Uber has established itself as the leading transportation company, displacing traditional cabs and giving rise to follower companies like Beat or Cabify, creating high adherence to collaborative service. Moreover, Chile has been used as a recognized sample of emerging markets in several studies [9,10] due to its economic stability, growth potential, and attractive investment destination for international companies.

However, Chile has been grappling with a trifecta of political, social, and economic uncertainties since October 2019. These contexts of uncertainty form the backdrop against which our study unfolds. To provide a more nuanced perspective, the economic uncertainty is related to two pivotal events: the after-pandemic economic condition and a social outburst followed by a “Constituent convention” tasked to write entirely a new constitution. Concerning the post-pandemic economic uncertainty, a technical report authored by Montt et al. [11] for the International Labor Organization, a subsidiary of the UN, characterized the situation as an unprecedented economic crisis in Chile’s recent history, exerting profound ramifications on the labor market. Furthermore, real GDP growth slowed to 2.4 percent in 2022 as reported by the World Bank. This evidence underscores the essence of economic uncertainty, which denotes a situation characterized by an uncertain or unpredictable economic outlook. Even before the economic tumult brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic, Chile was navigating the repercussions of a social outburst that ignited in October 2019. In November 2019, a significant milestone was reached when most political parties signed an accord aimed at fostering peace and initiating the process of drafting a new constitution. From March to August 2022, the constituent process unfolded, seeking to propose a fresh constitutional framework. Notably, on 4 September 2022, a general election marked the rejection of the proposed constitution. Consequently, the period encompassing our study was characterized by economic policy uncertainty that manifested as economic fluctuations attributable to the unpredictability of fiscal, regulatory, and monetary policies, as elucidated by Al-Thaqeb et al. [12]. Moreover, in line with Cuervo-Cazurra et al. [13], the conceptualization of political uncertainty as the potential for significant transformation in the political landscape, it is crucial to highlight that the present study occurred during a phase of political uncertainty in Chile, which included the possibility of the replacement of the Senate. This unique situation provides a unique context to study consumer behavior since previous studies indicate that high levels of uncertainty may lead to changes in financial and consumption decisions [12]. Moreover, in this context, we adopt the economic crisis concept proposed by Lindblom and Lindblom [14], which refers to a time when a country experiences significant economic and financial difficulty that affects society broadly and deeply. Hence, this research study emphasizes the importance of a collaborative orientation as an exchange system that gains significance during times of uncertainty. People in such situations promote collaborative consumption for economic savings, environmental responsibility, and alternative income sources [15].

Theoretical hypotheses are tested by analyzing the motivations of Chilean consumers to participate in these services, differentiating between extrinsic (EM) and intrinsic (IM) motivations under the theory of self-determination [16]. The study identifies latent constructs of each motivation in participants in this type of exchange. Empirically, the research surveyed 270 participants to develop and test a conceptual model on extrinsic and intrinsic motivations moderated by perceived service factors using the variance-based structural equation modeling with partial least squares (PLS).

The findings suggest that individuals primarily choose Uber for its convenience factor. However, enjoyment, security, and environmental orientation are also significant motivators for consumers of this service. Furthermore, people perceive Uber as a sustainable service that helps conserve natural resources and is ecologically favorable. Finally, gender and education play moderating roles, where gender affects the relationship between convenience and behavior, and education level influences the link between environmental perception and behavior.

2. Literature Review

Collaborative consumption has been a subject of interest in various research studies exploring new forms of exchange. However, due to its relatively recent emergence, there is still a general misunderstanding of its meaning among service providers and consumers [3]. To gain a clearer understanding of this concept, it is essential to explore the fundamental aspect that defines this new form of exchange: sharing. Belk [17] defines sharing as the act of distributing something belonging to an individual for others to use or the act of receiving something belonging to others for our use. This broad concept makes it possible to understand the essence of collaborative consumption by underlining a potential value and active recognition of possible reciprocity [18]. Belk [17] further defines collaborative consumption as the coordination of resource acquisition and distribution in exchange for payment or other compensation, excluding sharing activities where no compensation is involved, such as Couchsurfing.

Collaborative consumption embodies two crucial elements: the use of temporary, non-ownership access models for consumer goods and services, and its reliance on the Internet, particularly Web 2.0, for connection and facilitation [19]. The rise of Web 2.0 has led to the development of a hybrid economy, characterized by the coexistence of different exchange modes [20]. Collaborative consumption has become one of the most prominent forms of consumption within Web 2.0 [3] and has significantly impacted consumer trends, leading to the emergence of new business models with global reach, as exemplified by companies like Uber and Airbnb [5].

Consumers’ shift towards collaborative consumption is driven by various factors. Garcia [21] suggests that consumers are seeking alternatives to traditional ownership due to associated costs and burdens, especially with goods like cars, which incur maintenance expenses. Schor and Fitzmaurice [22] identified five motivations for participation in collaborative consumption: economic aspect, benefit, connections and social networks, emotional factors, and ecological considerations. Along the same line, Möhlmann [23] also found that consumers mainly engage in collaborative consumption for rational reasons, particularly economic benefits obtained by obtaining needed goods at low costs. Recently, Luri Minami et al. [3] distinguished aspects that act as drivers for participating in collaborative consumption, differentiating between EM and IM based on self-determination theory [24] as a theoretical lens. Additionally, Belk [17] points out that factors like global warming, increasing prices of goods, and growing environmental awareness are influencing the likelihood of participating in this type of exchange. Mazareanu [25] highlighted the significant penetration of collaborative consumption services in the market, projecting a 23% increase in global collaborative consumption, traditional leasing, and car sharing between 2013 and 2025. This situation emphasizes the importance of better understanding the factors that motivate consumers to participate in collaborative consumption.

The existing literature on potential motivations for participating in collaborative consumption serves as a basis for analyzing the market and understanding consumers’ particular motivations.

3. Theoretical Framework, and Hypotheses Development

3.1. Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) resolves around human motivation, development, and well-being. It delves into various types of motivation, with a particular focus on autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and demotivation as predictors of performance, relationship, and well-being outcomes. Additionally, SDT explores individuals’ life goals or aspirations, highlighting the distinct impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic life goals on performance and psychological health [24]. Thus, SDT allows us to assess people’s psychosocial predispositions and their compatibility with new experiences when becoming aware of alternative roles, enabling us to identify the mechanisms that generate trust and also motivate changes from being consumers to being providers in the context of the collaborative economy [26]. In essence, self-determination theory connects personality, human motivation, and optimal functioning by postulating two main types of motivation, EM and IM, both of which influence our identity and behavior [3,27,28].

In this study, self-determination theory [24] serves as a theoretical framework that is widely recognized and is employed in research concerning motivation in collaborative consumption [3,27,28]. Through this theory, we distinguish the motivations of direct relationships by examining EM and IM. Specifically, our goal is to investigate how direct relationship motivations impact consumers’ behavioral intentions.

To conduct this research, we utilize direct relationship motivations previously studied in the existing literature, carefully selected based on their implications in prior investigations. Moreover, we aim to identify potential differences in these motivations compared to what consumers in emerging markets value.

3.2. Hypotheses Development

3.2.1. Extrinsic Motivations (EM)

External regulation exists within EM, causing individuals to engage in a behavior to meet external demands or to obtain rewards, causing them to feel controlled or coerced [29]. Additionally, introjected regulation, a form of self-imposed regulation, comes into play, driven by the desire to avoid anxiety, achieve ego-enhancing accomplishments, and focus on aspects related to status and pride [29]. Therefore, acting under the influence of EM involves pursuing rewards, seeking social recognition, and finding a sense of fulfillment in response to external pressures. The constructs associated with this type of motivation, which are relevant to the current study, will be elaborated below.

• Convenience

In this study, the term “convenience” is defined based on the relevant literature as a person’s inclination towards completing a task in the quickest possible time with the least expenditure of energy [30]. This concept is associated with utilitarian value concerning a product or service, taking into account its benefits and costs [31]. Moeller and Wittkowski [31] have previously analyzed this concept in the context of collaborative consumption, referring to convenience as the relief from the burdens of ownership, such as product selection, full payment for infrequently used items, product obsolescence, and maintenance or repair costs. Collaborative consumption offers a way to circumvent these drawbacks by providing greater flexibility, convenience, and faster and more independent access to products and services that would otherwise not be accessible [32]. Therefore, it is essential to consider that convenience is part of an extrinsic factor in consumer motivations based on self-determination theory [24]. Similarly, Bardhi and Eckhardt [5] emphasize the relevance of convenience concerning collaborative consumption and consumer motivations.

Consumers may be motivated by convenience, as highlighted by Bardhi and Eckhardt [5], when the location of the object or product is closer to the consumer’s place of residence. This proximity, as exemplified by the service offered by Uber, can create a sense of ownership for consumers. Thus, convenience orientation is linked to time and effort minimization, including the physical energy spent in the process of purchasing. Consequently, renting can be seen as a form of convenient consumption, making it a plausible orientation that motivates consumers to participate in this type of consumption [31].

Luri Minami et al. [3] also point out the consequences of ownership, such as incorrect product selection, maintenance or repair efforts, and the full cost of owning infrequently used items. They incorporated this concept as an extrinsic factor, suggesting a preference to rent assets rather than own them. Considering the existing literature on extrinsic convenience motivation, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1.

Perceived convenience benefit drives consumers to engage in collaborative consumption.

• Security

Security is a crucial aspect of utilizing transportation services [33]. Particularly in the sharing economy context, two significant concerns come to the forefront. First, transactions conducted through Web 2.0 and their corresponding online payments are perceived as carrying substantial risks for consumers [34]. Second, the sharing economy, involving the use of a product without transferring ownership, is characterized by information asymmetry, raising the possibility of unmet expectations [35].

In addition to the aforementioned factors, there is an underlying risk associated with the interaction between the customer and the provider, both within and outside the sharing economy. This interaction, extensively studied in the services field, can have significant implications. While it may seem simple, as it involves the one-time transfer of a persona from one place to another, it still carries a substantial risk. While there has been an extreme risk situation associated with the use of Uber [36], there is a prevailing notion that traditional transportation services, like public transit, are comparatively riskier.

Considering these aspects, perceived security becomes a crucial factor in the utilization of the sharing economy, specifically in the case of Uber.

Hypothesis 2.

Perceived security benefit drives consumers to engage in collaborative consumption.

3.2.2. Intrinsic Motivations (IM)

IM can be defined as the driver to explore the environment and experience enjoyment in an activity without seeking external rewards. The activity itself serves as a source of gratification. The constructs associated with this type of motivation, relevant to this study, are detailed below.

• Enjoyment

Individuals may engage in collaborative consumption platforms because they find it enjoyable and meaningful, providing them with a fulfilling way to interact with others. Enjoyment is considered a fundamental intrinsic factor in human motivation [24] and is closely linked to the concept of perceived hedonic value [3]. It represents finding purpose and pleasure in the activity itself, characterized by feelings of fun, joy, and excitement. Enjoyment significantly influences attitude and behavioral intention toward collaborative consumption [27]. Service designs, like social networking services, that promote relatedness play a crucial role in intrinsically motivated use, such as seeking enjoyment [27].

For many consumers, the experiential aspect of consumption holds great importance. The non-ownership model in collaborative consumption allows individuals to access experiential products or services for a limited time, during which they can enjoy the product or service as long as it generates positive emotions and enjoyment [31]. Similarly, Luri Minami et al. [3] describe enjoyment as an element of intrinsic motivation, defining it as the pleasure experienced while engaging in an activity, encompassing emotions like fun, joy, and excitement.

Given the very essence of collaborative consumption platforms, which offer experiences that fulfill consumers’ needs through digital and experiential trends, it is anticipated that consumers of collaborative consumption value enjoyment as a driving force in their decision to participate. Therefore, based on the existing literature on IM, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3.

Perceived enjoyment benefit drives consumers to participate in collaborative consumption.

• Environment

Several authors have noted that environmental orientation is relevant to participation in collaborative consumption, but it may not hold the same significance as enjoyment [27]. According to Bardhi and Eckhardt [5], consumers are generally more concerned about their interests and well-being rather than the environment. Similarly, Schaefers [37] found that, while respect for the environment in carpooling is seen as a positive side effect, it is not the dominant motive. Da Costa Coelho and Abreu Romero [38] also commented that sustainability is often an outcome of participating in collaborative consumption, rather than the primary motivation.

However, Luri Minami et al. [3] state that collaborative consumption platforms facilitate the reuse of goods and services, reducing the need to produce new items and increasing the efficiency of resources. Shared solutions are generally considered to have more environmental benefits compared to non-shared alternatives, particularly in car sharing and ridesharing, where combining material goods leads to higher resource utilization [23,39].

Collaborative consumption has been viewed as a mode of consumption that appeals to environmentally conscious consumers. Recognizing collaborative consumption as a sustainable activity can lead to increased participation in sharing platforms [27]. According to Costain et al. [40], consumers are willing to choose more expensive alternatives as long as they are environmentally friendly. Puiu [28] suggests that green consumption influences participation in collaborative consumption. Green consumption occurs when individuals behave ethically, motivated by their needs while also considering the welfare of society and the environmental impact of their consumption choices. From an economic and environmental standpoint, green consumption is considered an essential factor in the context of collaborative consumption, which generally incorporates concepts of social contribution in environmental responsibility. Therefore, building on the existing literature on environmental IM, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 4.

Perceived environmental benefit drives consumers to engage in collaborative consumption.

3.2.3. The Moderations Role of Gender and Educational Level

• Gender and its moderation role

When investigating consumer behavior, it is essential to evaluate other factors, such as gender roles, as they play an important role in responding to these analyses [41]. Women tend to make purchase decisions based on the quality and value of the product, as well as the comfort and emotional satisfaction it provides them [42,43]. Meanwhile, men tend to look for products that provide them with status and power, as well as those that fit and reinforce their masculine identity [44]. However, it is essential to recognize that each individual has different preferences and motivations when making purchasing decisions [45].

Gender roles are social constructs and can vary significantly from one individual to another, so one cannot generalize purchasing preferences based on gender alone. However, gender differences may influence marketing and advertising strategies, and it is feasible to assume an adaptation to specific preferences according to region, type of economy, or even form of social implications [46]. In addition, the cognitive frameworks of women and men may differ, resulting in systematic differences in their thinking and acting [47,48,49]. Likewise, it is crucial to recognize that the experiences that shape this social construction lead to understanding the world in different areas, such as ethics and risk-taking, having an even more significant effect on purchasing decisions. It is, therefore, essential to realize that gender differences do not remain unchanged but change dynamically with time, technology, and society [50].

On the other hand, wage disparities that cause men to earn more than women [51], and behaviors associated with care responsibilities at home by women, have a significant impact on the autonomy and equal opportunities between men and women [52]. It is also important to observe the lack of representation of women in the process of implementing laws that protect their rights at different levels and spaces, causing them to experience vulnerability from educational experiences regarding stereotypes and prejudices that perpetuate discrimination in gender difference [53]. It is crucial to assume that education is a structural and cultural factor that maintains equality/inequality in multiple options concerning the freedom of those involved [54], making it necessary to create educational spaces in favor of the dissolution of prejudices at an early age [55,56], as well as to advance in the adoption and adaptation of new ideas and innovations in favor of an equitable and sustainable society, which guide the circular economy and collaborative consumption [57] with the different social actors, the family, the media and community organizations.

Considering the above factors, we can suggest differences in the adoption of collaborative consumption by gender, even during forms of social and economic uncertainty [58,59]. However, we must remember that the factors that drive people to participate in collaborative consumption may vary based on individuals’ diversity because of the complexity of personal and contextual factors that articulate economic uncertainty with contexts that depend on social norms, stereotypes, resources, opportunities, and alternatives oriented to the satisfaction or inhibition of needs according to gender. This allows us to ask whether there is a relationship between collaborative consumption and the adoption behavior of men and women.

Hypothesis 5.

Female/Male gender will positively/negatively, respectively, moderate the relationship between convenience of collaborative consumption and adoption behavior.

• Educational level and its moderation role

As mentioned, one of the fundamental characteristics of collaborative consumption is that it offers alternatives and advantages oriented to sustainability manifested in key attributes that coexist with respect for the environment, discouraging traditional consumption models that prescribe product obsolescence [60]. In this sense, education configures discourses, thematic, and disciplinary axes in standard geographic states of learning [61,62], pressuring changes in the management of companies to rethink the needs of consumers from the different formats and levels of training in the teaching and learning processes [63]. Therefore, education plays a crucial role in favor of environmental benefits articulated with economic and social understanding.

A higher level of environmental knowledge correlates significantly with a higher degree of environmentally friendly and conservation behavior [64,65]. As stated by Žalėnienė and Pereira [66], higher education contributes significantly to the implementation of the SDGs; it is considered a “change agent” that empowers sustainable development in the contexts where education governance processes are located [67,68]; it is being relevant for the (trans)formation of awareness and understanding of organizations that are oriented and adapted to educational initiatives in different territories and communities, where their multiple stakeholders must decide to coordinate and articulate between the perspectives of sustainability and the search for organizational legitimacy [69,70].

Therefore, education has the potential to influence the perceptions of its environments and contexts, organizing the social processes that occur in it. Education also addresses the perceptions of consumers and their consumption patterns [62], preparing the conventional economics perspective to dispose of sustainability. Thus, by identifying key competencies of the Education for Sustainable Development goals [71], such as developing appropriate pedagogies and strategies [72] and managing educational outcomes and objectives, the ambiguity and uncertainty of sustainability from economic, social, and environmental perspectives will be adjusted [73]. Then, the results of teaching and learning processes will also impact self-interest and encourage orientation towards others, organizing states that involve prosocial behavior, personal initiative, and collaborative performance [74], and completing human capabilities in favor of new market trends, technology industries, and communicational networks [75].

For its part, improving access to education and equalizing and guaranteeing quality at all levels of education will provide knowledge, competencies, and capabilities for the present and future [76], as well as improve the educational level in extracurricular activities, encouraging students to develop more competencies that facilitate collaboration, strategic thinking, collaborative problem solving, and systems thinking among others [77,78]. Then, individuals with higher exposure and education levels will have greater awareness and pro-environmental behavior, even in developing countries [79].

Meanwhile, focusing on observing the results in education will allow us to identify and differentiate (recognize), in an efficient way, the perspectives in favor of sustainability, which will bring us closer to the debate on the environmental and economic benefits of collaborative consumption. Therefore, reflecting on the educational level as a moderator in behavior is not far from the conditioning factors that manifest in collaborative consumption.

Hypothesis 6.

Higher/lower educational levels will positively/negatively, respectively, moderate the relationship between environmental recognition of collaborative consumption and adoption behavior.

Figure 1 detail the proposed framework for this study.

4. Methodology

4.1. Research Design

This study employed a quantitative research methodology based on surveys. Through this approach, we aimed to test the hypotheses by analyzing path coefficients and effect sizes [80]. Data collection was conducted using a self-administered survey.

4.2. Instrument Development

The survey questions were carefully selected from validated scales used in existing literature. The instrument was administered through Google Forms, employing a convenience sampling procedure. The survey was available from 25 May to 19 June 2022, targeting individuals with easy access and availability to participate in the sample. It was primarily disseminated through the authors’ social networks, inviting people to cordially contribute to this study that was focused on consumer perceptions. Respondents were not offered any incentives or rewards.

Regarding the questionary composition, statements about economic, enjoyment, environmental benefit, and behavioral intention were adapted from Hamari et al. [27]. The convenience theme was developed based on the work by Colwell et al. [16], while statements concerning security were derived from the study by Gu et al. [33].

4.3. Sample and Procedure

The survey was addressed to people aged 18 and older who had used the Uber service at least once. Respondents answered 39 questions, organized into three sections, using a Likert scale to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement, with a value of 1 representing “Strongly disagree” and a value of 5 representing “Strongly agree”. This approach allowed us to measure consumers’ perceptions and gain valuable insights into the specific motivations driving their participation in this type of exchange. To avoid order bias, the questions were randomized [81].

Respondents who had not used the Uber service were automatically directed to complete the survey process. This approach aimed to gather information on the user experience and identify motivations for using the service beyond the general perceptions of individuals who were familiar with the service but who had not personally used it.

After collecting the responses, a filter was applied to eliminate respondents who reported not having used the Uber service. The final sample consisted of 270 surveys. Within the sample, 78.1% were individuals between 18 and 35 years old. Approximately 53.7% identified as female, while approximately 45.9% identified as male. In terms of education level, 51.1% reported having incomplete higher education (including students in the process of graduating), 40.7% completed higher education, and only 8.1% had completed high school. In terms of the region of residence, 88.1% reported being from the metropolitan area (

Table 1. Demographic information of the sample.

Sample Size (N)	270
	Frequency	Percentage
Age range
18–25 years old	117	43.3%
26–35 years old	94	34.8%
36–45 years old	27	10.0%
46–55 years old	19	7.0%
Older than 55 years old	13	4.8%
Gender
Female	145	53.7%
Male	124	45.9%
Other	1	0.4%
Education
High school	22	8.1%
University studies (incomplete)	138	51.1%
University studies (completed)	110	40.7%

Source: author’s own elaboration.

).

4.4. Analytical Procedure

To conduct this explanatory–predictive study [80,82], we employed the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique using SmartPLS. This approach involves two stages of linear equations: the measurement model and the structural model. The measurement models reveal the relationships between the constructs and their indicators while the structural model assesses the relationships between the constructs [83]. Additionally, we performed a predictive performance evaluation of the model using the holdout samples technique [84].

The choice to use the PLS-SEM technique was driven by the need for a composite measurement model for one of the constructs [85,86], and the fact the model was estimated from an explanatory–predictive perspective [80,84].

5. Results

The results for Uber indicate that a coefficient of determination, R-squared, is 0.742 for behavioral intention. This means that, initially, the benefits of comfort, security, enjoyment, and environment account for 74.2% of the variance of behavioral intention. See

Table 2. R Square.

Confidence Intervals	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	5.0%	95.0%
BEH	0.742	0.754	0.696	0.806

Source: author’s own elaboration.

.

5.1. Evaluation of the Measurement Model (Outer Model)

First, the model’s reliability was assessed by considering the outer loadings, which were found to be greater than 0.7 for the reflective measurements [82]. Next, composite reliability (C.R.) and Cronbach’s alpha were examined to verify the internal consistency, and their values surpassed the commonly accepted threshold of 0.7. To test convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) was also considered, and its values exceeded the commonly accepted threshold of 0.5. See

Table 3. Reliability Estimates and Convergent Validity Statistics.

Construct	Variable	Item Description	Mean	Standard Deviation	Outer Weights	Outer Loadings	Variance Inflation Factor (VIF)	Cronbach’s Alpha	Composite Reliability (rho_a)	Composite Reliability (rho_c)	The Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Behavior intention	BEH1	I hope to continue to use Uber often in the future.	4.111	1.123	0.311	0.889	2.79	0.889	0.891	0.923	0.75
	BEH2	I see myself using Uber more frequently	3.733	1.023	0.29	0.88	2.714
	BEH3	I see myself increasing the use of services like Uber’s service.	3.733	1.038	0.272	0.864	2.395
	BEH4	I may participate more frequently in companies similar to Uber in the future.	3.684	1.046	0.281	0.83	2.023
Convenience	CON1	Using the Uber service, I can make a profit with less effort.	4.085	1.117	0.453	0.865	1.693	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
	CON2	Uber’s service meets my needs	4.378	0.86	0.31	0.754	1.46
	CON3	Using Uber’s service, I receive benefits in a reasonable amount of time.	4.241	0.922	0.431	0.869	1.781
Education	EDUC	Educational level	1.43	0.639	1	1	1	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Enjoyment	ENJ1	I think Uber’s service is nice	3.856	0.846	0.293	0.756	1.507	0.827	0.83	0.885	0.659
	ENJ2	I think Uber’s service is exciting	2.748	1.063	0.308	0.84	2.122
	ENJ3	I think Uber’s service is fun	2.815	1.045	0.293	0.827	2.06
	ENJ4	I think Uber’s service is interesting	3.693	1.053	0.338	0.822	1.723
Environment	ENV1	Uber’s service helps save natural resources	2.781	1.022	0.238	0.843	2.29	0.877	0.883	0.911	0.673
	ENV2	Uber’s service is a sustainable consumption mode (appropriate use of resources and minimization of waste and pollution).	3.259	1.208	0.26	0.873	2.909
	ENV3	Uber’s service is environmentally friendly (it contributes to society, improves the economy and people’s quality of life).	3.085	1.049	0.232	0.761	1.707
	ENV4	Uber’s service is energy efficient	2.97	0.992	0.22	0.761	1.703
	ENV5	Uber’s service is environmentally friendly	3.178	1.098	0.268	0.856	2.627
Gender	GEND	Gender	0.459	0.498	1	1	1	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Security	SEC1	Uber’s service cares for and protects my physical integrity and personal items.	3.659	0.971	0.321	0.777	1.524	0.796	0.816	0.88	0.71
	SEC2	My privacy is protected when using the Uber service.	3.196	0.948	0.425	0.869	1.822
	SEC3	Services provided through an intermediary company (such as Uber) are much safer.	3.619	1.032	0.435	0.877	1.86

Note. BEH stands for behavior intention; CON for convenience; EDUC for education; ENJ for enjoyment; ENV for the environment; GEND for gender; SEC for security; and N/A for not applicable.

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For testing discriminant validity, we employed the Fornell–Larcker criterion [87] and the Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio of the correlation matrix (HTMT) [88]. See

Table 4. Discriminant validity based on Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio HTMT.

	BEH	EDUC	ENJ	ENV	GEND	SEC	GEND × CON	EDUC × ENV
BEH
EDUC	0.03
ENJ	0.867	0.076
ENV	0.774	0.034	0.891
GEND	0.27	0.061	0.208	0.192
SEC	0.79	0.044	0.828	0.81	0.245
GEND × CON	0.397	0.011	0.413	0.389	0.199	0.297
EDUC × ENV	0.055	0.02	0.039	0.048	0.049	0.093	0.057

and

Table 5. Discriminant validity based on the Fornell-Larcker criterion.

	BEH	EDUC	ENJ	ENV	GEND	SEC
BEH	0.866
EDUC	0.028	1
ENJ	0.747	−0.069	0.812
ENV	0.686	−0.004	0.76	0.82
GEND	0.256	−0.061	0.191	0.185	1

Note. The square root of variance shared between the constructs and their measures (AVE) are in bold. Off-diagonal elements are the correlations among constructs.

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The evaluation of the formative construct commenced by assessing the level of multicollinearity among the items, following the approach by Henseler et al. [89]. The maximum variance inflation factor (VIF) was found to be 1.781, well below the accepted threshold of 3.3 that was suggested by [90]. For the inner model, the maximum VIF was found to be 2.997, which was below the accepted threshold of 3.3; therefore, the model is considered free of common method bias considering the full collinearity test [91]. To evaluate internal consistency, the rho indicator, with an interpretation similar to Cronbach’s Alpha, was utilized. All values were satisfactory, exceeding 0.70 as recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein [92]. See Table 3 for more details.

Subsequently, a confirmatory composite analysis was conducted to assess the nomological validity of the model, following the methodology proposed by Henseler et al. [93] and Henseler [83]. The standardized root means square residual (SRMR) obtained a value of 0.053.

5.2. Evaluation of the Structural Model (Inner Model)

The proposed model was evaluated through a comprehensive analysis that included reviewing the path coefficients between the exogenous and endogenous variables, bootstrapping of critical ratios, and predictive relevance Q2, following broadly accepted methodology [94]. To assess the significance of the relationships between constructs, bootstrapping analysis with 10,000 subsamples was conducted, utilizing the one-tailed test as described by Kock [95]. The t-values and their corresponding p-values were thoroughly examined, and all paths were found to be significant at a = 0.05, except for the moderation of education level on the relationship between environment and purchase behavior, with a p-value of 0.075.

Regarding the specific variables, convenience (B = 0.509, t = 7.435, p < 0.01), security (B = 0.143, t = 2.384, p < 0.01), enjoyment (B = 0.263, t = 4.159, p < 0.01), and environment (B = 0.130, t = 1.802, p < 0.05) together explain 74.2% of the behavior attitudinal variable. Details information about these variables and the moderation can be found in

Table 6. Latent variable correlations: Mean, STDEV, T values, p values.

	Original Sample (O)	Sample Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (STDEV)	T Statistics (|O/STDEV|)	p Values
CON → BEH	0.509	0.508	0.068	7.435	0
EDUC → BEH	0.061	0.06	0.029	2.15	0.016
ENJ → BEH	0.263	0.262	0.063	4.159	0
ENV → BEH	0.13	0.127	0.072	1.802	0.036
GEND → BEH	0.147	0.144	0.058	2.531	0.006
SEC → BEH	0.143	0.148	0.06	2.384	0.009
GEND × CON → BEH	−0.238	−0.231	0.065	3.637	0
EDUC × ENV → BEH	−0.052	−0.05	0.036	1.442	0.075

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Furthermore, the predictive significance of the model was found to be satisfactory, with a Q² = value of 0.675, indicating an acceptable level of predictive power. See

Table 7. PLS prediction results.

						PLS-LM
	Q2 Predict	PLS-SEM RMSE	PLS-SEM MAE	LM RMSE	LM MAE	RMSE	MAE
BEH1	0.59	0.722	0.543	0.709	0.522	0.013	0.021
BEH2	0.514	0.716	0.535	0.732	0.543	−0.016	−0.008
BEH3	0.42	0.794	0.588	0.806	0.578	−0.012	0.01
BEH4	0.479	0.759	0.55	0.784	0.56	−0.025	−0.01

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Finally, we present the moderation analysis. First, gender acts as a moderator in the relationship between convenience and behavioral intention. Figure 2 illustrates that both genders exhibit relatively low levels of convenience, but women show a significantly lower reaction compared to men.

Secondly, education has a weaker moderation effect on the relationship between environmental concerns and behavioral intentions. Figure 3 indicates that individuals with lower levels of education tend to significantly reduce their behavioral intentions when they perceive less concern about the environment from the company.

Based on the results obtained, there is support for hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5. However, regarding H6, which explored the moderation of education level on the relationship between environmental benefits and attitude towards purchasing, the results had a p-value of 0.075 but showed a contrary effect to the one proposed (see Figure 4). This contradiction might stem from increased awareness and consciousness about environmental issues at the high school level, leading to more environmentally friendly behavior. However, with higher educational levels, the impact of environmental awareness campaigns might be relatively lower.

The numbers represent the path coefficient, and the p-values are in parentheses.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

Collaborative consumption is no longer a niche trend; on the contrary, it involves millions of users and constitutes a profitable trend in which many companies invest [96]. Despite the revolution of collaborative consumption companies in the global market, surprisingly little research focuses on understanding the motivations of consumers to participate in this type of sharing and collaborative exchange, especially during times of crisis and uncertainty.

Collaborative consumption has revolutionized how consumers access products and services [1]. However, recent research by Luri Minami [3] highlighted the limited knowledge about consumers’ motivations driving participation in sharing and collaboration movements, urging the need to explore their impacts. This study was inspired to delve into consumers’ perceptions and motivations to understand what drives them to participate in collaborative consumption, focusing on the Uber service and investigating potential gender differences in the valuation of convenience.

To build the theoretical model, a state-of-the-art review identified key issues related to collaborative consumption, exploring definitions and constructs that were studied and validated by previous authors. The study utilized the motivational model presented by Deci and Ryan [24], employing self-determination theory as a lens to differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in the theoretical model.

The results demonstrated that consumers place significant value on convenience-oriented benefits, particularly in terms of external rewards (extrinsic motivations). This finding aligns with previous studies [27], indicating that consumers are strongly motivated by convenience when participating in collaborative consumption.

Furthermore, intrinsic motivations related to environmental aspects and security were also important drivers for consumers. In the case of Uber service, convenience emerged as a key motivator, in line with the research by Bardhi and Eckhardt [5]. According to the results obtained from the moderators’ variables, although a low level of convenience leads to a lower purchase intention for both genders, the effect is greater for women than for men, with a significant difference in the situation of low convenience. However, this difference dissipates when the level of convenience is high, in which case, there is no significant difference between the purchase intention of men and women. Also, consumers appreciate the practicality and efficiency of this type of service, which allows them to request transportation and have a vehicle arrive promptly at their location, avoiding the effort and waiting times associated with traditional transportation options, as mentioned by Moeller and Wittkowski [31].

The enjoyment construct also played a significant role, aligning with the study by Luri Minami et al. [3] and Hamari et al. [27], who refer to hedonic value associated with activities that generate pleasure. This result is particularly relevant given the current environmental challenges facing the planet. Consumers recognize collaborative consumption, like Uber, as a sustainable service that contributes to environmental preservation through the sharing of assets rather than acquiring new goods. This eco-friendly aspect of collaborative consumption significantly impacts consumers’ behavioral intentions. This finding is aligned with other research [28,40] and enhances collaborative consumption as a model that is valued in its environmental contribution, under its activity of sharing assets instead of acquiring new goods, generating for Uber service, efficient use of vehicles, which minimizes the need to acquire a vehicle of their own.

6.1. Theoretical Contributions

The present study tests a motivational model focused on collaborative consumption as a form of exchange, examining both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations using the theoretical lens of self-determination theory [24]. Through this approach, important theoretical contributions are made by analyzing consumer perceptions and generating insights into the motivations driving consumers to participate in collaborative consumption, specifically in the case of Uber. It is worth noting that most existing motivational studies in the literature have primarily focused on direct relationships and their impact on behavioral intention. In contrast, our study emphasizes the direct relationship constructs, compiling and validating constructs previously evaluated in other research [3,27], to provide a deeper understanding of their relationship with behavioral intention.

Furthermore, the consideration of moderators has been relatively overlooked in previous studies, leaving unanswered questions about individual differences that may influence the adoption of sharing economy services. As a result, our study contributes to advancing knowledge in this line of research, shedding light on the role of gender and educational level as potential moderators in the context of collaborative consumption.

6.2. Managerial Implications

This research makes valuable contributions to management, particularly in the context of collaborative consumption businesses. The finding reveals essential intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that play a crucial role in collaborative consumption. Consequently, companies such as Uber and similar platforms can utilize these results to refine their marketing strategies and attract new consumers. Emphasizing aspects of convenience, enjoyment, and environmental impact can be instrumental in attracting and retaining customers. Additionally, other collaborative consumption companies can gain insights from these findings to better understand the factors influencing consumers’ behavioral intentions.

Furthermore, effectively communicating the benefits of convenience and environmental responsibility can lead to competitive advantages for these businesses. It is recommended to invest in marketing strategies that transparently showcase the convenience of their service, highlighting the unique experiences they offer to consumers. It is particularly vital to consider the perceptions of women when assessing convenience ratings. Simultaneously, special care should be taken to communicate the environmental benefits genuinely, ensuring that the company is not perceived as engaging in “greenwashing” practices.

6.3. Limitations and Future Research

Like all research studies, this work has certain limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the analyses were conducted based on a cross-sectional sample, which means that it does not capture changes or trends over time. Consequently, it does not account for possible shifts in the economy that might impact the availability or quality of the service, nor does it consider other social, cultural, or political factors that could influence the finding.

Second, the study did not account for cultural differences in its measurements, potentially overlooking social norms that might influence how participants perceive the variables under study [97]. Future research could consider incorporating variables such as nationality of origin, time spent in the country of residence, and other cultural factors to gain a more comprehensive understanding.

Thirdly, the study focused on a specific service company, such as Uber, but it is essential to acknowledge that consumers’ responses might also be influenced by other competitors in the market. These factors could have an undetermined impact on the participants’ assessment and behaviors.

Finally, user experience in terms of time and frequency of usage could be an influential factor that warrants consideration in future research. Individuals with limited or infrequent use of the service may have different perceptions compared to those who use it regularly, leading to varying levels of appreciation for the service.

In conclusion, while this study provides valuable insights, addressing these limitations in future research can lead to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of consumer motivations and behaviors in the context of collaborative consumption services.