Factors Influencing Generation Z’s Pro-Environmental Behavior towards Indonesia’s Energy Transition

Abstract

The energy transition is essential for combating climate change and achieving sustainability. Generation Z plays a vital role in taking responsibility for environmental concerns, and without rigorous action and support measures, they will be the group most affected by climate change. Their perceptions, attitudes, and actions are crucial to the success of the energy transition. Therefore, this study aims to explore the factors influencing Generation Z’s pro-environmental behavior in order to support the energy transition in Indonesia. The combination of the extended theory of planned behavior and the pro-environmental behavior concept was used as the main framework of this study. Statistical analysis was conducted using partial least square structural equation modeling with SmartlPLS 3.0 software. Quantitative data were collected using a snowball method online questionnaire that was distributed to 400 Generation Z individuals born between 1997 and 2012, who reside in Jakarta, Indonesia. The results indicate that environmental awareness and environmental concern have a positive influence on Generation Z’s attitude towards the energy transition in Indonesia. Attitude and perceived behavioral control positively influence the intention to support the energy transition, whereas perceived behavioral control and intention contribute positively to Generation Z’s pro-environmental behavior. Conversely, the subjective norm exerts no influence on intention. Interventions aimed at enhancing Generation Z’s support for the energy transition should address factors that positively influence pro-environmental behavior. These insights can aid governments, institutions, and stakeholders in devising interventions to increase Generation Z’s engagement in the energy transition and foster the adoption of pro-environmental behavior.

1. Introduction

Climate change, an urgent global threat, demands united efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) emphasizes reducing GHGs to achieve the Paris Agreement’s target of limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels; it aims to prevent severe environmental repercussions like rising sea levels, extreme weather, and food security risks [1]. An imperative shift in the energy sector is vital, as fossil fuels contribute to 75% of emissions [2]. This energy transition involves reducing fossil fuel reliance, boosting renewable sources, electrification, and energy efficiency, which aligns with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 7 of ensuring accessible and sustainable energy for all [3].

The utilization of fossil fuels as an energy source in Indonesia has led to a significant increase in the country’s GHG emissions [4]. Notably, Indonesia ranked as the fourth largest global GHG emitter in 2015, which was primarily attributed to activities such as deforestation, peat fires, and fossil fuel combustion [5]. The Ministry of Environment and Forestry in Indonesia approximated that around 1,050,413 GgCO₂-eq of GHGs were released in 2020. The energy sector was the most significant contributor of emissions, contributing 55.62% of all total emissions. This was followed by forest and other land use (FOLU) and peat fires, contributing 17.46%. The waste sector accounted for 12.07%, agriculture for 9.40%, and industrial processes and product use (IPPU) accounted for 5.44%. This marks a significant increase in total GHG emissions in 2020 when compared with 2010, which recorded 814,643 GgCO₂-eq emissions—though this is still lower than the 1,295,739 GgCO₂-eq recorded in 2016 [6]. This highlights the undeniable need for an energy transition to cleaner, sustainable alternatives to mitigate the escalating environmental impact and steer Indonesia towards a more sustainable future.

In order to accomplish the anticipated reductions in Indonesia’s total GHG emissions, and to achieve the goal of net zero emissions by 2060 or earlier, it will be imperative to accelerate decarbonization efforts within the energy sector, despite the prevailing dominance of fossil fuels in this sector. The energy transition is a key driver behind Indonesia’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) goals, which aims to reduce GHG emissions by 29% to 31.89% (unconditionally), and 41% to 43.2% (conditionally) by 2030, as compared with a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario [3]. In addition, the utilization of Indonesia’s extensive renewable energy resources and the implementation of clean technology are expected to expedite the achievement of the country’s energy transition goals.

In recent years, significantly more attention has been paid to the global climate movement, particularly among the younger generation. Those in this generation, widely known as Generation Z, are distinguished by their upbringing in the digital era. Generation Z is presently undergoing a transition into the workforce and will soon assume responsibility for climate governance [7]. Generation Z’s understanding of the energy transition, as well as their awareness of current environmental circumstances that have been, and may continue to be, influenced by the consequences of climate change, can contribute to the advancement of sustainable development principles [8]. This can be achieved through the adoption of pro-environmental behaviors, including the efficient utilization of energy, the adoption of renewable energy technologies, and the enactment of penalties for actions that harm the environment [9,10].

Generation Z refers to individuals born after 1997, as defined by the Pew Research Centre [11]. Despite this, some studies suggest that Generation Z are those born between 1995 and 2010 [12,13,14,15,16]. The International Labour Organisation estimates that, by 2020, Generation Z will comprise approximately 21% of the world’s population, and it will be entering the workforce [7]. In Indonesia, Generation Z is attempting to reshape the future of their country, and it has garnered political attention. In the 2020 Indonesian census, Statistics Indonesia classified Generation Z as those born between 1997 and 2012. In 2020, they constituted 27.94% of Indonesia’s total population of 270.20 million (75.49 million people). They outnumbered Generation X (21.88%) and Millennials (25.87%) [17]. In 2020, the Generation Z population in Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, surpassed 2.29 million, constituting 21.69% of the city’s total population of 10.56 million [18].

As Indonesia’s energy transition policies shift, it has become increasingly important to analyze Generation Z’s perceptions of the energy transition and identify the factors that influence their intention and implementation of pro-environmental behavior in order to facilitate and promote the energy transition. The consequences of climate change and current energy practices will be borne by Generation Z, making their perspectives and participation crucial for promoting sustainable change and climate change mitigation. Generation Z’s technological expertise, awareness, and potential to influence behavioral patterns mean that they play a crucial role in promoting the adoption of renewable energy sources and advocating for policy changes. Therefore, this study aims to explore the factors influencing Generation Z’s performance of pro-environmental behavior to support the energy transition in Indonesia. The results of this study can provide valuable insights for policymakers, institutions, and the business sector in terms of formulating effective strategies that resonate with Generation Z’s values, thus enhancing their involvement in the energy transition, and encouraging their adoption of pro-environmental behaviors in Indonesia.

2. Literature Review

The concept of energy transition is approached from various angles, leading to a diverse range of definitions. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) defined energy transition as a “pathway towards the transformation of the global energy sector from fossil-based to zero-carbon by the second half of this century” [19]. Cleveland and Morris referred to energy transition as the shift in the global energy sector toward renewable energy production and consumption systems, such as wind, solar, hydropower, and geothermal energy [20]. Sung and Park provided a broader definition of the energy transition, stating that it is a “collective, complex and long-term process comprising multiple actors for social changes and involving extensive societal changes” [21]. This definition recognizes the intricacy of the energy transition, encompassing both the transformation of the energy sector and society as a whole. Deloitte emphasized that the energy transition promotes significant reliance on clean energy [22]. Despite varying conceptualizations of the energy transition, Serrano and Zaveri identified four consistent themes that define it: market, government action, public involvement, and technological advancements [23]. Consequently, it is essential to approach the energy transition from a multidisciplinary perspective.

The need to reduce GHG and promote the advancement of energy transition has emerged as a key priority for all nations worldwide in their pursuit of a sustainable future. Renewable energy plays a crucial role in promoting environmental sustainability and fostering green growth. Due to their beneficial influence in terms of boosting renewable energy consumption, common people’s perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes play a significant role in promoting better environmental quality. Due to the worsening of environmental problems that are attributable to human actions, pro-environmental behavior has been the primary focus of environmental sustainability research. Several studies have been conducted in recent years to identify the factors that influence pro-environmental behavior [24,25,26]. Lucarelli et al. found a statistically significant positive correlation between individuals’ awareness, knowledge, and risk perception of climate change attitudes and their environmental behaviors in Malaysia [25]. The intention of senior citizens to engage in mandatory and voluntary pro-environmental programs was investigated in a study conducted by Lin et al. [26].

In prior research, numerous hypotheses were used to predict pro-environmental behaviors [27,28,29]. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), developed by Ajzen, focuses on the idea that human behavior is a commonly employed theoretical framework for determining intended behavior. Based on the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), TPB considers attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to account for factors beyond conscious control. TPB, unlike TRA, acknowledges the influence of essential resources and opportunities. TPB emphasizes that stronger positive attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, result in stronger intentions and a greater likelihood of engaging in a particular behavior. TPB can be augmented with enhanced constructs to provide a more comprehensive explanation of observed behaviors, known as extended TPB. Studies have applied this extended theory to demonstrate pro-environmental behaviors, and to predict behavioral intentions. For instance, De Leeuw et al. evaluated descriptive norms, moral norms, sex, and empathetic concern, along with traditional TPB constructs, to identify beliefs that influence pro-environmental behavior in young individuals [30]. Chen included the moral obligation to engage in pro-environmental behavior as an additional construct to predict individual intentions regarding energy saving and carbon reducing behaviors [31]. Arya and Chaturvedi incorporated the consideration of future consequences into the TPB model, and they demonstrated that the extended TPB strongly determines energy conservation behavior [32]. Furthermore, Paul et al. found that by using the extended TPB, along with an environmental concern construct, they improved the predictability of individual intentions with regard to the purchasing of green products, as compared with using the original TPB and TRA [33]. Similarly, Liobikienė et al. used the environmental concern construct to assess attitudes toward renewable energy, and they included the development level of renewable energy and financial abilities construct under perceived behavioral control conditions, in order to determine intentions to use renewable energy [34]. In a different context, Lucarelli et al. applied the extended TPB to examine pro-environmental behavior related to concerns and worries induced by the COVID-19 pandemic [25].

3. Hypotheses Development

The first two hypotheses (H1 and H2) were explored to predetermine Generation Z’s energy transition attitudes in Indonesia. Environmental concern refers to “the degree to which people are aware of environmental problems, support efforts to solve them, and/or indicate a willingness to contribute personally to their solution” [35]. Masud et al. argued that a good understanding of the environment increases the likelihood of pro-environmental behavior [36]. In addition, the interaction between environmental concern and attitude plays a significant role in determining the intention to adopt renewable energy, surpassing the impact of attitude alone [34]. Consequently, individuals who possess greater environmental concerns, and who exhibit a positive attitude towards renewable energy, are more likely to utilize renewable energy. Considering these premises, additional constructs are required to better comprehend the attitude towards the energy transition. Thus, the following hypotheses were formulated:

 Hypothesis 1 (H1).

Environmental awareness has a positive influence on attitudes concerning energy transition.

 Hypothesis 2 (H2).

Environmental concern has a positive influence on attitudes concerning energy transition.

In this study, the TPB was employed to predict the intentions of Generation Z, in Indonesia, regarding support for the energy transition. The original TPB model includes three constructs, as follows: attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Ajzen defined attitude as “the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question,” subjective norms as “the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior,” and perceived behavioral intention as “the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior” [27]. This model postulates that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control directly influence one’s intention to act and indirectly influence behavior through intention. When individuals hold more favorable attitudes, perceive stronger social norms, and feel greater control over their behaviors, their intention to engage in that behavior becomes stronger. A study by Arya and Chaturvedi supported the TPB model’s ability to predict pro-environmental behavior, particularly concerning energy-saving practices [32]. However, a study by Hu et al. yielded different results, indicating that subjective norms did not have a positive correlation with young people’s intentions to engage with low-carbon travel [37]. Nevertheless, the original TPB model, with its three constructs, was utilized to validate its applicability to the context of the current study. Accordingly, the following hypotheses were formulated:

 Hypothesis 3 (H3).

Attitude towards energy transition has a positive influence on intention to support the energy transition.

 Hypothesis 4 (H4).

Subjective norms have a positive influence on the intention to support the energy transition.

 Hypothesis 5 (H5).

Perceived behavioral control has a positive influence on the intention to support the energy transition.

Generation Z’s intention to support the energy transition served as a dependent variable in this study, and it was employed to predict their pro-environmental behavior, which represented another dependent variable within the model. Pro-environmental behavior can be defined in terms of actions that have a positive impact on the environment, or which are intended to benefit the environment [38]. For this particular study, the focus was on Generation Z’s actions to support the energy transition in Indonesia. In this context, “intention” refers to the likelihood of individuals engaging in a specific behavior, whereas “perceived behavioral control” denotes their ability to control and execute certain behaviors (i.e., they are prevented from engaging in actions beyond their control) [39,40]. A past study by De Leeuw et al. observed that students’ intentions and perceived behavioral control play a significant role in predicting pro-environmental behavior. Furthermore, perceived behavioral control directly influences both intention and behavior [30]. Therefore, it is suggested that creating conditions that facilitate pro-environmental actions and remove barriers is crucial. Based on the above information, the following hypotheses were formulated:

 Hypothesis 6 (H6).

Perceived behavioral control has a positive influence on pro-environmental behavior.

 Hypothesis 7 (H7).

Intentions to support the energy transition have a positive influence on pro-environmental behavior.

4. Methodology

4.1. Data Collection and Questionnaire Design

The target participants for the current study were Indonesian members of Generation Z living in the Greater Jakarta Area, including Central Jakarta, North Jakarta, East Jakarta, South Jakarta, West Jakarta, and Thousand Islands. This study defined Generation Z as those born between 1997 to 2012, as preferred by Statistics Indonesia [26], in the 2020 Indonesian census. According to the census, the total Generation Z population in Jakarta amounts to 2,297,094 people [18]. The desired participants for this study were Generation Z individuals who are working or studying in higher institutions. To determine the appropriate sample size, the Yamane formula [41] was utilized, resulting in a minimum of 400 samples. A 95% confidence level and an error limit of 0.05 were assumed for this equation. The formula to calculate the sample size is as follows:

$$n=\frac{N}{1+N{e}^2}$$

where n = sample size, N = population size, and e = error limit.

$$n=\frac{\mathrm{2,297,094}}{1+\left(\mathrm{2,297,094}\right)\left(0.05\right)\left(0.05\right)}$$

$$n=\frac{\mathrm{2,297,094}}{5743.735}$$

$$n=399.93(\approx 400\mathrm{respondents})$$

The questionnaire consisted of four sections, as follows: (1) socio-demographic profile components, (2) knowledge of energy transition (KET), (3) knowledge of pro-environmental behavior (KPEB), and (4) TPB components. In the first section, respondents were categorized based on their socio-demographic profiles. The second section (

Table A1. KET Questionnaire.

Items	Options
Have you ever heard of the energy transition? Explanation: The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy (RE) sources to generate energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG).	Never heard of it A little A fair amount A lot
Have you ever heard about the development of RE in Indonesia? Explanation: Prominent RE development in Indonesia includes hydropower, geothermal, and biofuel. Rooftop solar PV can be found in governmental, commercial, and household buildings nowadays.	Never heard of it A little A fair amount A lot
Have you ever heard about the energy transition policy in Indonesia? Explanation: The energy transition policy (e.g., NDC, RUPTL, etc.) includes Indonesia’s targets to reduce GHG emissions, increase the use of RE sources, phase out coal-fired power plants, carbon tax, incentives to use RE technologies, etc.	Never heard of it A little A fair amount A lot

) aimed to assess respondents’ initial knowledge about the energy transition, related policies, and the development of renewable energy technologies in Indonesia. The third section (

Table A2. KPEB Questionnaire.

Items	Options
Have you ever heard about pro-environmental behavior? Explanation: PEB is a behavior that positively impacts the environment, including supporting the ET policy and environmental activism online or in-person.	Never heard of it A little A fair amount A lot
Attitude towards the future of the energy transition, (e.g., ET will bring economic and technological advancements) [38].	Very pessimistic Pessimistic Optimistic Very optimistic
Supports the energy transition policy in Indonesia (e.g., agree with the NDC goal to reduce GHG emissions, develop RE, and phase out coal-fired power plants).	Never Rarely Sometimes Always
Performs environmental activism (e.g., joining organizations and engaging in activism online and/or in person, liking and sharing posts about energy-related/environmental issues) [38].	Never Rarely Sometimes Always
Performs pro-environmental behavior in daily life (e.g., using energy-efficient utilities and/or low-carbon fuel, using a public/private vehicle that uses RE or low-carbon technology).	Never Rarely Sometimes Always

) explored respondents’ characteristics concerning different types of pro-environmental behavior. The fourth section (

Table A3. TPB Questionnaire.

Constructs	Items
Environmental awareness (EA) [36]	EA1: I am aware that fossil fuels will run out and that they are irreplaceable. EA2: I am aware that using fossil fuels for energy emits GHG emissions that cause climate change. EA3: I am aware that climate change affects the environment and the existence of life on Earth.
Environmental concern (EC) [34]	EC1: I am concerned about climate change and its impact on the environment and life on Earth. EC2: I am concerned about air pollution and GHG emissions caused by using fossil fuels to generate energy. EC3: I am concerned about the future of energy if fossil fuels are totally depleted.
Attitude towards energy transition (AT) [34,58]	AT1: I think the energy transition contributes to technological advancement. AT2: I think the energy transition policy and related measures contribute to economic growth. AT3: I think the energy transition policy and related measures contribute to the welfare of Indonesian citizens through health improvements and energy accessibility. AT4: I think the energy transition policy and related measures contribute to the creation of green jobs. AT5: I think energy transition policy and related measures contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
Subjective norms (SN) [30]	SN1: My family, friends, and colleagues think supporting the energy transition policy in Indonesia is important. SN2: My family, friends, and colleagues encourage me to engage in energy transition activism online or in-person. SN3: My family, friends, and colleagues influence me to use electricity from renewable sources. SN4: My family, friends, and colleagues expect me to use energy-efficient utilities and/or fuel-efficient, hybrid, or electric vehicles (for personal use or public transportation).
Perceived behavioral control (PBC) [25,34,59]	PBC1: I am confident that I can mitigate the impact of climate change by supporting the energy transition policy and related measures. PBC2: I have the financial ability, willingness, time, and other resources to use energy-efficient or renewable energy technologies, pay for higher electricity tariffs, and engage in other pro-environmental behaviors. PBC3: I believe my activism can be a driving force for the energy transition policy in Indonesia. PBC4: I can behave in an environmentally friendly manner, in order to support the energy transition, quite easily if I want to. PBC5: I can behave in an environmentally friendly manner to support the energy transition on a daily basis.
Intention to support energy transition (IN)	IN1: I would like to support the energy transition policy. IN2: I would like to participate in energy transition activism at events held in person or online. IN3: I would like to use energy from renewable sources for electricity and/or fuel. IN4: I would like to use energy-efficient utilities and/or fuel-efficient, hybrid, or electric vehicles (for personal use or public transportation). IN5: I would like to influence others to support the energy transition.
Pro-environmental behavior (PEB)	PEB1: I support the energy transition policy in Indonesia. PEB2: I participate in energy transition activism at events held in person or online. PEB3: I try to use energy from renewable sources for electricity and/or fuel. PEB4: I try to use energy-efficient utilities and/or fuel-efficient, hybrid, or electric vehicles (for personal use or public transportation). PEB5: I influence others to support the energy transition.
Options	1—Strongly disagree; 2—Disagree; 3—Neutral; 4—Agree; 5—Strongly agree

) focused on TPB constructs to examine the factors influencing Generation Z’s pro-environmental behavior in support of the energy transition. This section employed a 5-point Likert-type scale, where respondents rated each item from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). The questionnaire was distributed online through email, messaging applications (e.g., WhatsApp, Telegram), and social media platforms (e.g., Twitter, Instagram). Google Forms was used to collect and manage responses.

4.2. Data Analysis

Responses from the socio-demographic profile section, along with KET and KPEB questionnaires, were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 16.75.2 and presented in tables and graphs. The results were discussed descriptively. Responses from the TPB questionnaire were analyzed using partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) [25,31,33], and they were computed using SmartPLS 3.0 software. PLS-SEM analysis included measurement model analysis, a discriminant validity assessment, and a structural model assessment. Hypotheses were tested using bootstrapping.

5. Results and Analysis

5.1. Characteristics of Respondents

The characteristics of Generation Z respondents were obtained from their socio-demographic profile, their knowledge of the energy transition, and their pro-environmental behaviors. To ease and assist respondents with filling out questionnaires, explanatory texts and images were provided (e.g., adding an example of a widely known energy transition policy).

5.1.1. Socio-Demographic Profile

Table 1. Socio-demographic profiles of respondents.

Category	Items	Frequency	%
Sex	Male	254	47.21
	Female	284	52.79
Age	18–19	105	19.52
	20–24	232	43.12
	25–26	201	37.36
Living area	Central Jakarta	104	19.33
	North Jakarta	82	15.24
	East Jakarta	113	21.00
	South Jakarta	102	18.96
	West Jakarta	92	17.10
	Thousand Islands	45	8.36
Education	High school	120	22.30
	Diploma 1/2/3	80	14.87
	Bachelor’s degree/Diploma 4	300	55.76
	Master’s degree	38	7.06
	Doctoral degree	0	0.00
Occupation	Student	116	21.56
	Part-timer/freelancer/honorary	67	12.45
	Entrepreneur/business owner	42	7.81
	Private sector employee	190	35.32
	State-owned enterprises employee	81	15.06
	Civil servant	16	2.97
	Homemaker	17	3.16
	Unemployed	9	1.67
Personal expenses per month	Below IDR 1,000,000	82	15.24
	IDR 1,000,000–IDR 3,000,000	224	41.64
	IDR 3,000,001–IDR 7,500,000	187	34.76
	Above IDR 7,500,000	45	8.36

illustrates the socio-demographic profiles of respondents in the study. Among 538 Generation Z respondents, 52.79% were female and 47.21% were male. The majority of respondents were Generation Z young adults (age 20–24, 43.12%), 37.36% were adults (age 25–26), and 19.52% were older adolescents (age 18–19). The area with the highest number of respondents was East Jakarta, comprising 21% of respondents, whereas the area with the lowest number of respondents was Thousand Islands (8.36%). More than half of respondents had a bachelor’s degree or a diploma 4 education (55.76%), whereas 22.30% had a high school diploma. A portion of respondents had completed a diploma 1/2/3 education (14.87%) and some also held a master’s degree (7.06%). Most of the respondents had a profession (73.61%), whereas 21.56% identified as students. Furthermore, those spending between IDR 1,000,000 and IDR 3,000,000 per month comprised the highest proportion of respondents (41.64%), followed by those spending between IDR 3,000,000 and IDR 7,500,000 per month (34.76%).

5.1.2. Knowledge of the Energy Transition

Based on the KET responses (Figure 1), most of the respondents claimed that they heard “a fair amount” with regard to the energy transition (46.65%), the development of renewable energy in Indonesia (49.07%), and energy transition policies in Indonesia (42.94%). A significant number of respondents stated that they had heard “a lot” with regard to the above questions. This finding shows that the majority of the Generation Z participants in this study had adequate knowledge of the energy transition, renewable energy development, and energy transition policies in Indonesia. Moreover, this result indicates that Generation Z is more exposed to information regarding the above topics, as they are accessible through the internet, mainstream media, and knowledge-sharing may also occur in schools and workplaces.

5.1.3. Knowledge of Pro-Environmental Behavior

According to the KPEB responses (Figure 2), 42.57% of the Generation Z respondents expressed that they had heard “a fair amount” with regard to pro-environmental behavior, and 35.32% claimed that they had heard “a lot” about it. This positive result aligns with the other responses in this set of questions. More than half of the respondents showed an “optimistic” (55.95%) attitude regarding the future of the energy transition in Indonesia. Most of the respondents stated that they have “always” supported the energy transition policy in Indonesia (43.12%), and that they perform pro-environmental behaviors in their daily lives (47.96%). When asked about their environmental activism, 36.25% of the respondents answered that they “sometimes” engage in such behaviors, 28.81% answered “rarely”, 21.38% answered “never”, and 13.57% answered “always”. This finding indicates that although Generation Z exhibits a positive attitude, performance, and support toward energy transition, they might not always be willing to contribute to environmental organizations or information sharing. As most of the respondents are workers and students, some of them might find it hard to balance environmental activism with other responsibilities.

5.2. Measurement Model Analysis

The measurement model was analyzed to evaluate its construct reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity, and multicollinearity. The result of the measurement model analysis is depicted in

Table 2. Measurement model results.

Constructs	Items	Factor Loading	CR	Cronbach’s Alpha	AVE	VIF
Environmental Awareness (EA)	EA1	0.799	0.844	0.722	0.643	1.394
	EA2	0.795				1.397
	EA3	0.811				1.473
Environmental Concern (EC)	EC1	0.820	0.874	0.785	0.699	1.629
	EC2	0.839				1.634
	EC3	0.848				1.644
Attitude towards the Energy Transition (AT)	AT1	0.779	0.890	0.846	0.619	1.671
	AT2	0.802				1.995
	AT3	0.804				2.007
	AT4	0.788				1.794
	AT5	0.759				1.559
Subjective Norms (SN)	SN1	0.816	0.870	0.800	0.625	1.752
	SN2	0.783				1.613
	SN3	0.779				1.566
	SN4	0.785				1.537
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)	PBC1	0.745	0.858	0.793	0.547	1.518
	PBC2	0.712				1.446
	PBC3	0.754				1.523
	PBC4	0.704				1.425
	PBC5	0.780				1.586
Intention to Support the Energy Transition (IN)	IN1	0.780	0.872	0.817	0.578	1.708
	IN2	0.770				1.610
	IN3	0.767				1.641
	IN4	0.724				1.510
	IN5	0.759				1.574
Pro-environmental Behavior (PEB)	PEB1	0.823	0.899	0.860	0.641	1.974
	PEB2	0.807				1.925
	PEB3	0.736				1.649
	PEB4	0.785				1.731
	PEB5	0.848				2.210

. Items with loading factors lower than 0.5 should be eliminated from a model [42], whereas 0.7 would be an ideal value [43]. The lowest loading factor among the items was 0.704, therefore, all items were able to be included in this model. The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) values were used to measure the construct reliability. Cronbach’s alpha values spanned from 0.722 to 0.860, which are above the recommended value of 0.7 [44]. The CR values range from 0.844 to 0.899, which are above the accepted value of 0.7 [45]. Therefore, the latent variables have internal consistency. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values determine the convergent validity, which is used to evaluate the construct validity of the model. The AVE values of the constructs range between 0.545 and 0.692; these values are higher than the recommended value of 0.5 (50%) [46]. Thus, all constructs have an acceptable convergent validity. The Variance Inflated Factor (VIF) values of the model’s items range from 1.394 to 2.210, which is below the 5.0 threshold [47]; therefore, there are no multicollinearity issues.

5.3. Discriminant Validity Assessment

Discriminant validity refers to the degree to which a construct truly differs from other constructs [48]. The discriminant validity was assessed using the Fornell–Larcker criterion and the Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio (HTMT).

5.3.1. Fornell–Larcker Criterion

The Fornell–Larcker result is shown in

Table 3. Fornell–Larcker result.

Constructs	AT	EA	EC	IN	PBC	PEB	SN
AT	0.787
EA	0.587	0.802
EC	0.481	0.538	0.836
IN	0.584	0.612	0.441	0.760
PBC	0.657	0.633	0.490	0.688	0.739
PEB	0.584	0.490	0.412	0.670	0.676	0.801
SN	0.375	0.322	0.308	0.360	0.420	0.458	0.791

. The values of the square root AVE of each construct (bolded in Table 3) should be greater than the correlations with other constructs. The square root AVE values of all constructs in the model suggest appropriate discriminant validity.

5.3.2. Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio

The HTMT ratio is exhibited in

Table 4. HTMT result.

Constructs	AT	EA	EC	IN	PBC	PEB	SN
AT
EA	0.745
EC	0.584	0.712
IN	0.698	0.797	0.550
PBC	0.792	0.835	0.623	0.849
PEB	0.682	0.612	0.492	0.789	0.812
SN	0.454	0.421	0.388	0.444	0.529	0.556

Note: The diagonal values (blacked out) are the square root values of the AVE, whereas the values that are not on the diagonal are correlations.

. The HTMT ratio shows the estimation of the correlation between two latent variables [49]. This method is preferred to the Fornell–Larcker criterion and cross-loading result when determining discriminant validity as it has higher specificity and sensitivity rates. The threshold value of 0.9 indicates adequate discriminant validity [50], whereas a value higher than the suggested threshold indicates a lack of discriminant validity. The HTMT values of the constructs In the model are lower than the threshold, thus establishing discriminant validity.

5.4. Structural Model Assessment

The structural model assessment (

Table 5. Structural model results.

Constructs	R2	Adjusted R2	Q2	Interpretation
AT	0.383	0.380	0.230	Substantial
IN	0.507	0.504	0.286	Substantial
PEB	0.537	0.535	0.337	Substantial

) included predictive strength (R²) and the Stone–Geisser criterion for predictive relevance (Q²). The level of acceptance regarding the R² values varies from 0.02 = weak, to 0.13 = moderate, to 0.26 = substantial [51]. The R² values for Attitude towards energy transition (AT), Intention to support the energy transition (IN), and Pro-environmental behavior (PEB) constructs are 0.383, 0.507, and 0.537, respectively. The values surpass the substantial acceptance value, meaning the model can explain 38.3%, 50.7%, and 53.7% of the total variance influencing AT, IN, and PEB constructs, respectively. The Q² value expresses the predictive relevance of the model at a minimum value of 0 [52]. The Q² value of the dependent constructs, which are AT (0.230), IN (0.286), and PEB (0.337), are higher than 0, therefore, the model shows adequate predictive relevance.

5.5. Hypothesis Testing

The current study model’s constructs were analyzed using a hypothesis test with bootstrapping to determine their correlations. The results of this test are presented in

Table 6. Hypothesis test results.

Hypotheses	Path Correlation	Path Coefficient	M	Std.	t Values	p Values	Result
H1	EA → AT	0.462	0.462	0.048	9.518	0.000	Supported
H2	EC → AT	0.233	0.232	0.046	5.075	0.000	Supported
H3	AT → IN	0.222	0.222	0.050	4.464	0.000	Supported
H4	SN → IN	0.060	0.060	0.035	1.726	0.084	Unsupported
H5	PBC → IN	0.517	0.516	0.045	11.549	0.000	Supported
H6	PBC → PEB	0.408	0.409	0.041	9.841	0.000	Supported
H7	IN → PEB	0.390	0.389	0.044	8.776	0.000	Supported

and as a graph in Figure 3. Out of the seven hypotheses developed in the study, six of them showed statistically significant findings, with t-values greater than 1.96 (two-tailed) and p-values less than 0.05. The supported hypotheses include H1 (t = 9.518, p < 0.000), H2 (t = 5.075, p < 0.000), H3 (t = 4.464, p < 0.000), H5 (t = 11.549, p < 0.000), H6 (t = 9.841, p < 0.000), and H7 (t = 8.776, p < 0.000). In all these cases, the path coefficients were positive, indicating a positive influence. However, H₄ displayed an unsupportive result as it was not statistically significant (t = 1.726, p > 0.05).

In summary, the findings suggest that environmental awareness and environmental concern have a positive impact on individuals’ attitudes towards the energy transition. Moreover, attitude itself and perceived behavioral control positively influence the intention to support the energy transition. Moreover, both intention and perceived behavioral control have a positive effect on pro-environmental behavior. However, the study did not find any statistical evidence to support the idea that subjective norms influence Generation Z’s pro-environmental behavior.

6. Discussion

6.1. Correlation between Environmental Awareness and Environmental Concern, and the Attitude towards the Energy Transition

Environmental awareness (EA) and environmental concern (EC) have been shown to positively impact Generation Z’s attitude towards the energy transition (AT). Consequently, prioritizing the enhancement of EA as an intervention strategy can foster a favorable AT among Generation Z, while also considering other pertinent constructs. The findings of this study are in line with previous studies [34,36], which revealed a significant connection between climate change awareness, knowledge, risk perception, and attitudes towards climate change, thus demonstrating the crucial role played by the interaction between environmental concern and attitude in influencing intentions to support the energy transition.

This study affirms that Generation Z individuals who have a heightened awareness of, and concern for, the impact of climate change, fossil fuel dependence, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, are more likely to hold a positive attitude towards the energy transition in Indonesia. It is noteworthy that the IDN Research Institute [53] reported a notable inclination, among Generation Z individuals in Indonesia, towards accessing media through digital platforms, with a specific focus on entertainment and lifestyle content. Social media platforms, particularly Instagram, have emerged as effective channels for Generation Z to participate in discussions, share knowledge, and advocate for environmental sustainability, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and various environmental campaigns. Given the insights derived from the current study, it is evident that social media possesses significant potential to nurture Generation Z’s awareness and concern about the impact of climate change and the energy transition, as it utilizes visual representations and easily comprehensible messages.

6.2. Correlation between Attitude towards the Energy Transition and Intention to Support the Energy Transition

AT signifies the evaluation of a specific behavior by an individual. The findings demonstrate a positive influence of AT on intention to support the energy transition (IN), indirectly affecting pro-environmental behavior (PEB) through IN. This alignment is consistent with previous results [25,36], which revealed a beneficial relationship between attitude towards climate change and pro-environmental behavior. Similarly, Suntornsan et al. [54] observed that attitude favorably impacts the intention and execution of energy-saving behaviora, although its influence is the weakest among the examined factors.

Within this study, AT emerged as the second most notable predictor of IN, following PBC. This suggests that members of Generation Z, who possess a favorable stance towards the energy transition, recognize the energy transition’s contributions to technological advancement, economic growth, health enhancement, energy accessibility, the creation of green jobs, and the reduction of GHG emissions. Therefore, they exhibit a heightened inclination to support the energy transition in Indonesia. Nonetheless, holding a positive attitude alone does not determine Generation Z’s intentions. Consequently, when formulating intervention strategies to foster Generation Z’s intention to back the energy transition in Indonesia, it is crucial to encompass other pertinent constructs.

6.3. Correlation between Subjective Norms and Intention to Support the Energy Transition

The only hypothesis lacking support in this study pertains to the relationship between subjective norms (SN) and IN. SN refers to how others’ opinions can influence an individual’s decision-making process. This finding aligns with Hu et al. [37], where a similar absence of a positive correlation between SN and the behavioral intention of adopting low-carbon travel practices among young individuals was noted. This suggests that younger demographics tend to display more independence and less susceptibility to the influence of their peers’ opinions. Similarly, Paul et al. [33] reported that SN does not significantly predict green purchasing behavior. Nevertheless, this result contrasts with the conclusions drawn by Suntornsan et al. [54], wherein SN emerged as the most significant predictor of whether the intention to execute energy-saving behaviors is carried out. This suggests that societal norms heavily shape pro-environmental conduct among young people.

It is crucial to acknowledge that this study solely focused on SN from those closest to respondents, as it specifically addressed “My family, friends, and colleagues…” in the questionnaires. As a result, it excludes broader societal contexts and external influences, such as media and public figures. It remains plausible that Generation Z is, to some extent, influenced by media and well-known personalities who actively champion environmental concerns, climate change, and the energy transition. The credibility and persuasiveness of the communicator can significantly impact the effectiveness of message dissemination [55]. However, it is also plausible that there may not be sufficient compelling evidence or narratives capable of influencing Generation Z’s perspectives, or they could maintain a degree of skepticism towards new information.

6.4. Correlation between Perceived Behavioral Control and Intention to Support the Energy Transition and Pro-Environmental Behavior

Perceived behavioral control (PBC) emerged as the construct exerting the most substantial positive influence on both IN and PEB, thus supporting Ajzen’s original TPB model [30]. This result aligns with previous studies which found that PBC strongly influences young individuals’ intentions and PEB; this emphasizes the importance of accessible and affordable tools necessary for engaging in such behaviors, a heightened sense of control, along with clear implementation guidelines [30,34,37].

The current study’s findings underline that PBC strongly predicts the intentions of members of Generation Z with regard to their support of the energy transition in Indonesia and pro-environmental behaviors. The link between PBC, intention, and behavior highlight the crucial role that self-perception and self-efficacy play in guiding their choices and actions. Given the substantial impact of PBC, it is evident that strategies aimed at motivating and engaging Generation Z in the energy transition should prioritize the enhancement of their perceived control. This can be achieved by empowering Generation Z individuals through education, awareness campaigns, and initiatives that provide practical tools and resources. By ensuring that Generation Z feels adequately equipped to navigate the complexities of the energy transition, these interventions can effectively bridge the gap between intention and action.

6.5. Correlation between Intention to Support the Energy Transition and Pro-Environmental Behavior

IN served as the dependent construct, and it was hypothesized to be influenced by AT, SN, and PBC. IN diverges from actual behavior, as it signifies the motivational factors shaping an individual’s willingness to engage in a specific behavior. The actual enactment of the behavior, as per TPB, is propelled by both IN and PBC [27]. Although the direct correlation between PBC and PEB is significant, the findings of this study elucidate that IN still wields a significant and positive impact on PEB. Aziz [56] discovered a similarly notable influence of IN on the PEB of students in Jordan, and they proposed the combined use of IN and PBC. Suntornsan et al. [54] also revealed that IN functions as a mediator between PBC and energy-saving behavior in high school students, suggesting a potential synergy between PBC and IN that encourages energy-saving actions. De Leeuw et al. [30] highlighted the value of IN as a longitudinal predictor of PEB, as certain investigations solely concentrate on IN without evaluating the actual performance of the behavior.

Both IN and PBC can be concurrently employed to predict behavior performance, whereas individuals possessing a higher PBC are more inclined to successfully carry out a behavior [27]. Nevertheless, there are instances in which PBC may not viably replace IN, particularly when individuals lack essential information about a behavior—this is a gap that IN can fill [57]. Ajzen [27] posits that a more favorable AT, SN, and PBC can collectively contribute to a more robust IN to engage in a specific behavior. Thus, as per the findings of this study, increasing the predictive efficacy of IN, concerning PEB in support of the energy transition in Indonesia, necessitates interventions directed towards promoting favorable AT, SN, and PBC among Generation Z individuals, with a focus on the most significant construct, without neglecting the others.

7. Conclusions

This study embarked on a comprehensive exploration of the factors shaping Generation Z’s intention and pro-environmental behaviors in the context of the energy transition. The members of Generation Z that were studied reside in Jakarta, Indonesia. The implications of this study’s findings may prove invaluable for governments, institutions, private sectors, and various stakeholders aiming to develop effective interventions to encourage Generation Z’s active participation in the energy transition, and to foster pro-environmental behavior. The key findings of the study encompass the following:

• Generation Z’s attitude toward the energy transition is influenced by their environmental awareness and concern, which is intricately linked to their knowledge of climate issues. Furthermore, Generation Z’s attitude towards the energy transition emerges as a pivotal determinant that not only shapes their intention to support the transition, but it also indirectly stimulates pro-environmental behavior. This inclination is especially pronounced among individuals who perceive the energy transition as a catalyst for multiple environmental and national benefits. Although many respondents displayed a solid knowledge of the energy transition and pro-environmental behaviors, variations in climate change perception and educational disparities were evident. Different perspectives regarding the impact of climate change and existing educational disparities could potentially obscure the favorable attitude Generation Z holds towards the energy transition. This emphasizes the need for tailored interventions to bridge knowledge gaps and address educational inequalities within Generation Z. The findings spotlight the importance of cultivating environmental awareness and concern, ensuring that the energy transition is understood and embraced across diverse perspectives to build a sustainable future.
• This study did not find that subjective norms significantly influence intentions to support the energy transition or pro-environmental behavior among Generation Z individuals. Interestingly, Generation Z seems to exhibit a heightened sense of independence and critical thinking when confronted with novel information, even if it originates from their inner circles. Generation Z may feel that the approval of those closest to them is not a crucial factor in their decision. Although media and public figures still have some influence, the proliferation of misinformation could potentially erode Generation Z’s trust. Thus, establishing Generation Z’s trust in the energy transition in Indonesia might necessitate the presentation of tangible success stories, featuring individuals who have effectively embraced energy transition initiatives. This strategy could help to bridge the trust gap and motivate active participation in environmental endeavors.
• Perceived behavioral control was found to have a pivotal influence upon Generation Z’s intention to support the energy transition and to engage in pro-environmental behaviors. Within this context, empowering Generation Z to actively participate in the energy transition is paramount. Enabling them to feel an increased sense of influence, and helping them actively engage in pro-environmental behaviors, holds the potential to fortify their commitment to sustainable practices. This encompasses considerations such as their personal financial capacities, the financial feasibility of renewable energy technologies, and the practicality of these technologies. Addressing these factors is a strategic avenue that may alleviate barriers and assist with Generation Z’s participation in the energy transition.

8. Policy Recommendation

To enhance Generation Z’s positive attitude towards Indonesia’s energy transition, the following policy recommendations are proposed:

• Fostering a collaboration between the government, the private sector, other stakeholders, and Generation Z; this has the capacity to accelerate the energy transition, and although it requires additional skills, knowledge, and connections, this can be facilitated. Consequently, it is imperative to implement measures designed to increase Generation Z’s support for the nation’s energy transition.
• Establishing participatory mechanisms to ensure the active involvement of Generation Z in Indonesia’s energy transition, with regard to decision-making. For instance, a youth council or forum could be set up. This would allow them to express their opinions and ideas on current and future energy transition policies. Decision-makers can also seek feedback from Generation Z, who hold significant political influence and can advocate for pro-environmental action, thereby fostering the necessary political will for the energy transition.
• Disseminating information, updates, and opportunities for participation in the energy transition through various platforms, such as educational settings and media outlets. In addition, the government should project a positive image of the energy transition and its future plans, in order to highlight the positive impact of mitigating climate change, and to enhance overall quality of life, such as through the use of renewable energy sources.
• Allocating resources to promote the participation of Generation Z in the energy transition through funding, incentives, and collaboration. Scholarships for professional training and education may make green professions and renewable energy-related careers more appealing to Generation Z workers. Generation Z’s engagement in the energy transition could be bolstered by partnerships that support their activities and initiatives.
• Facilitating Generation Z’s entrepreneurship in the clean energy sector by collaborating with stakeholders to support clean energy start-ups and supporting technological innovations developed by Generation Z. This may occur through a variety of means, including professional training, collaborations, and incubator and accelerator programs, which may assist small companies and start-ups, helping them thrive in the clean energy market.

9. Limitations

It is essential to note that this study’s scope and findings are limited to Generation Z individuals residing in Jakarta, Indonesia; therefore, generalizing and applying these results to different contexts may not be appropriate. Future studies could extend this focus to include additional constructs, such as assessing the willingness to pay for environmentally friendly goods and services, or moderating effects may be introduced, such as pre- vs. post-COVID-19 pandemic influences. Moreover, other generational cohorts, like millennials or Generation X, could be chosen as research subjects, or a comparative analysis between the results of two or more cohorts could be conducted.