Next Article in Journal
Detecting Land Surface Temperature Variations Using Earth Observation at the Holy Sites in Makkah, Saudi Arabia
Previous Article in Journal
Environmental Regulations and Carbon Emissions: The Role of Renewable Energy Research and Development Expenditures
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Use of Zinc Oxide in Asphalts: Review
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 18
10.3390/su151813356
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

An Evaluation of the Cracking Resistance of Steel- and Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures Produced at Different Temperatures

by
Ayhan Oner Yucel
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Merkez Kampus, Aydin 09010, Turkey
Sustainability 2023, 15(18), 13356; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813356
Submission received: 14 August 2023 / Revised: 30 August 2023 / Accepted: 5 September 2023 / Published: 6 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Paving Materials and Pavement Construction)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study focuses on the effects of the production temperatures, warm mix asphalt (WMA) additive, and fiber content on the cracking resistance of steel- and glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures. By using three different approaches, which included different mixing and compaction temperatures, along with the incorporation of a WMA additive, the samples were produced utilizing the Marshall mix design method. The low-temperature cracking resistance and bottom-up fatigue cracking resistance of the asphalt mixture samples were assessed through indirect tensile (IDT) tests performed at two different test temperatures: −10 °C and 20 °C, respectively. According to the fracture work density values, glass fibers significantly improve the low-temperature cracking performance of asphalt mixtures. Furthermore, it was found that the low-temperature cracking resistance of the hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures containing fibers was similar to that of the mixtures prepared using the WMA additive at 15 °C lower mixing and compaction temperatures than the HMA mixtures. To conclude, the WMA additive improved the compactability of the steel- and glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures without compromising the low temperature cracking performance, despite the low mixing and compaction temperatures.

1. Introduction

Factors such as heavy traffic, sudden temperature fluctuations or very low temperatures can cause the rapid deterioration of the road pavement and significantly reduce its service life [1,2]. Scientists and engineers are constantly seeking new materials and technologies to enhance the durability and resilience of asphalt mixtures. The utilization of fibers in asphalt mixes has been a common field of study in recent years due to their ability to improve mechanical performance and make other positive contributions [3,4,5]. The potential for enhancing the mechanical properties of pavement and extending its lifespan significantly exists through the incorporation of fibers into asphalt mixtures, with outcomes varying based on the chosen fiber type and content [4,6,7,8]. The use of fibers may bring additional environmental benefits, as dry process technology enables the fibers to be incorporated into the mixture directly at ambient temperature. Substituting fibers for polymers could help save a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions and required energy during the production and construction of asphalt mixtures. Using fibers also helps to conserve non-renewable fossil-based resources [9]. The longer service life of fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures could eventually lead to a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions during the operation period [10].
The primary focus of this article is on the use of steel and glass fibers in asphalt mixtures. Steel fibers are widely considered to be more beneficial for modifying asphalt mixtures compared to other types of fibers [11]. The addition of steel fibers to asphalt mixtures is beneficial as it enhances both their electrical conductivity and mechanical performance. The enhanced electrical conductivity of such mixtures proves to be advantageous for various applications such as snow and ice removal, as well as the self-healing and self-monitoring of pavement structures [12,13,14]. Park et al. [15] assessed the resistance of asphalt mixtures containing fibers to thermal cracking using various steel fibers of differing lengths and diameters. The findings indicated that the use of steel fibers with longer lengths and a 0.2–0.4 mm diameter range enhances IDT strength, fracture energy, and toughness. The application of an optimal quantity of steel fiber additive resulted in an improvement of the Marshall stability, rutting resistance, and low temperature cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures [16]. Glass fibers, like steel fibers, are introduced into asphalt mixtures using the dry method. The introduction of glass fibers leads to a rise in the amount of air voids in the mixture, as the contact between aggregates decreases and the fibers absorb the asphalt binder that is available on the aggregate surface and in the gaps between aggregates [17]. The use of 20 mm long glass fibers of 0.3% by weight of the total mix in Stone Matrix Asphalts (SMAs) resulted in enhancements in permanent strain, resilient modulus, and fatigue life [18]. Additionally, utilizing 0.4% of glass fibers with a length of 35 mm in SMAs improved the rutting behavior and maximum stress detected during bending tests [19]. Tests conducted at 0 °C indicated that the incorporation of glass fibers also enhanced the low-temperature cracking resistance [20]. Glass fiber usage can reverse the negative impact of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material on the crack resistance of asphalt mixtures [21]. The use of fiber has become popular not only in the field of pavement but also in other fields in recent years [22,23].
The tensile strength of asphalt mixtures is lower than their compressive strength. To enhance the tensile strength of asphalt mixtures, introducing high-tensile-strength fibers into the mixture is a reasonable solution. This approach allows the existing tensile stresses in the mixture to be transferred through the fibers, increasing absorbed strain energy during fatigue and fracture processes [18]. Fiber reinforcement creates a strong adhesion between fibers and bitumen [4]. Fibers stabilize and maintain the asphalt on the fibers’ surface and increase the asphalt’s resistance against the fluidity in high temperatures [24]. Additionally, fibers form a three-dimensional network within asphalt mixtures to resist against shear forces and the reduction in mixture fluidity [24]. Glass fibers enhance the consistency of the mastic and establish a locking mechanism between aggregates [15]. When polyester microfibers are present in asphalt concrete and microcracks form, the microcracks do not progress under loading [25]. This demonstrates that fibers act as bridges, transferring stresses and limiting crack growth.
Traditional asphalt concrete pavements are constructed using hot mix asphalt. Over the past few years, warm mix asphalt (WMA) applications have become widespread in the United States of America and have been increasing in European countries [26,27]. The main reasons for the preference of WMA are the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions due to lower production temperatures, and the reduction in energy consumption [28]. This provides a more economical and environmentally friendly solution. WMA additives reduce the viscosity of the bitumen at mixing and compaction temperatures, increasing the workability and compactability of asphalt mixtures [29,30]. Working at lower temperatures ensures that fewer heavy chemicals are released into the environment. It is known that WMA additives can lower the compaction temperature without deteriorating performance and increase the compactability of asphalt mixes [31]. Additionally, by maintaining the same temperature as with HMA mixtures, targeted compaction can be achieved with less energy using WMA additives [32].
When fibers are added to asphalt mixtures, the workability and compactability of the mixture tend to decrease [11,33]. WMA additives can be a complementary choice because of their success in decreasing asphalt binder viscosity and enhancing workability and compactability [34]. Vuruna et al. [35] conducted a study on warm stone mastic asphalt mixtures using natural and synthetic fibers. They obtained good fatigue and rutting resistance at low mixing and compaction temperatures of 130 °C and 120 °C, respectively. WMA additives and fibers have many environmental and economic benefits, and they also contribute positively to the mechanical performance. Thus, the combined use of WMA additives and fibers is a hot topic and an important field of study.
The main objective of this study is to investigate the effects of the use of fibers and WMA additives together on the cracking resistance performance of asphalt mixtures. We also aimed to eliminate the workability and compactability difficulties caused by the use of fibers by utilizing WMA additives. In the scope of this study, the volumetric characteristics, Marshall stability, and cracking resistance of asphalt mixes that were produced using the Marshall design method with varying rates of fiber addition were evaluated. Two different fiber types, namely steel fibers and glass fibers, were used. In addition to the fiber-reinforced HMA samples, samples were produced by using the WMA additive (Sasobit), and the effects of the WMA additive on the properties of the fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures were investigated. The properties of the fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures fabricated at lower mixing and compaction temperatures with the Sasobit additive were also evaluated to determine the effectiveness of the WMA additive. In this study, the fracture work density data obtained as a result of the IDT test were utilized to evaluate the low-temperature and bottom-up fatigue cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures.

2. Materials and Experimental Procedures

2.1. Aggregate

For the fabrication of the asphalt mixtures in this study, only limestone obtained from a local quarry was employed as the singular aggregate source. Aggregate gradation was determined to meet the Type-1 limits for the wearing course in the technical specifications of the General Directorate of Highways of Turkey [36]. Technical specification limits and selected gradation are given in Figure 1 and Table 1. In terms of composition, the aggregate skeleton was composed of coarse aggregates making up the majority share at 58%, followed by fine aggregates at 39%, with the remaining 3% being composed of filler. Aggregate properties are given in Table 2 in accordance with the specified ASTM standards.

2.2. Asphalt Binder and WMA Additive

The asphalt binder with a penetration grade of 50/70 (PG 64-22) used in this study was obtained from a petroleum refinery located in Turkey. Table 3 provided the fundamental characteristics of the asphalt binder, in accordance with the specified standards.
The determination of the production temperatures was carried out using a Brookfield Viscometer. First, a viscosity–temperature curve was obtained, and then the temperatures corresponding to asphalt binder viscosities 170 ± 20 cP and 280 ± 30 cP were selected as the mixing and compaction temperatures, respectively. The mixing and compaction temperatures for a typical HMA mixture were determined to be 155 °C and 145 °C, respectively. These temperatures were established according to the viscosity–temperature curve.
In this work, a non-foaming additive (Sasobit) was used as a WMA additive. One of the earliest additives for WMA to be introduced in the asphalt pavement industry was Sasobit. Using the Fischer–Tropsch process, a synthetic paraffin wax is produced by combining hot coal and natural gas with steam and a catalyst [37]. Below its melting point, which is around 100–110 °C, the additive has a higher viscosity than the binder, while above its melting point, the additive has a lower viscosity than the binder. While Sasobit lowers the viscosity of the binder at production temperatures compared to conventional HMA mixtures, it increases the viscosity at the service temperature that will occur when the pavement is put into use. In this way, it enhances the workability of the mixture during the mixing and compaction stages, resulting in lower mixing and compaction temperatures. Sasobit is also known to improve the mechanical performance of asphalt concrete [38]. According to previous researcher’s recommendations, the quantity of the additive utilized may vary from 0.8% to 4% based on the weight of the binder, depending on the aggregate size distribution [38]. In this study, the Sasobit dosage was selected as 3% by weight of the asphalt binder. This dosage was chosen based on previous studies on fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures [39,40,41].

2.3. Steel and Glass Fibers

In this study, steel and glass fibers obtained from private companies were used. The lengths of steel and glass fibers are 6 mm and 12 mm, respectively. The diameters of these fibers are known as 6 mm and 13–15 microns, respectively. Images of these fibers are given in Figure 2. Table 4 outlines the significant physical and mechanical properties of these fibers. This research study examined the effects of utilizing fiber additives at various ratios on the volumetric and mechanical characteristics of asphalt mixtures. In previous studies, when examining the effects of fiber additives on the performance of asphalt mixtures, fiber dosages were utilized in the range of 0–1% for glass fibers and 0–5% for steel fibers by weight of mixture [11,15,19]. Optimum fiber contents were determined within these ranges in the aforementioned studies. Therefore, in this research, fiber dosages were selected from within these ranges. Samples containing steel fibers at the ratios of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 5% of the total weight of the mixture were produced. The glass fiber content of the samples was selected as 0%, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1%.

2.4. Mixture Types and Sample Preparation

In this study, asphalt mixtures with different fiber types and contents were produced using three different methods. The first method is traditional hot mix asphalt (H), and the samples were produced using a mixing temperature of 155 °C and a compaction temperature of 145 °C. In the second method (W), mixing and compaction temperatures remained unchanged from the first method (H), but Sasobit, which is a WMA additive, was introduced into the mixtures. In the third method, mixing and compaction temperatures were reduced by 15 °C and determined as 140 °C and 130 °C, respectively, and Sasobit was used in the mixtures. As a result, samples of asphalt mixture containing different contents of steel and glass fibers were produced with these three different methods and their volumetric properties and cracking performances were evaluated. The different types of asphalt mixture produced in this study are summarized in Table 5, which provides a detailed summary of the varying content of steel and glass fibers used in each mixture. As can be seen from this table, a total of 33 different types of asphalt mixtures were produced.
In this work, the Marshall design method was employed to find the optimal binder content of HMA mixtures. The optimum binder content was determined as 4.85%, which corresponds to the 4% air voids value. All samples in this study were prepared with this binder content.
The sample preparation steps can be summarized as follows: the WMA additive (if used) was introduced to the preheated aggregate and mixed with the aid of a spatula in the preheated bowl for 15 s. Secondly, fibers were introduced to the bowl and further mixed for an additional duration of 30 s. Then, the binder was added to the batch and mixed in the laboratory asphalt mixer for a period of 2 min. All asphalt concrete samples were produced using a Marshall compactor. The number of blows per side was determined to be 75 blows. This number of blows simulates heavy traffic loading conditions. In this study, instead of utilizing the Superpave gyratory compactor, the Marshall hammer was chosen as the preferred compaction method as the Marshall compactor is more sensitive to temperature change [29,42,43]. To manage the variations in volume over a limited temperature range, the Marshall hammer was employed. The mix design summary and the technical specifications required by the General Directorate of Highways of Turkey are given in Table 6 [36].

3. Testing Program

3.1. Volumetric Tests

The fiber type and content, the addition of WMA additives, and the manipulation of mixing and compaction temperatures all have a major impact on the volumetric properties of asphalt mixtures. Thus, the variation in the percentage of air voids was assessed in correlation with the characteristics of the mixture. To determine the volumetric properties, loose asphalt mixture samples were used to determine the maximum theoretical specific gravity, and the bulk specific gravity was determined using compacted samples. Theoretical maximum specific gravity and bulk specific gravity tests were implemented according to ASTM D2041 and ASTM D2726.

3.2. Marshall Stability Test

The performance of mixtures can be assessed using the Marshall stability test. Although Marshall stability is an indirect measure, it is crucial that the stability of asphalt mixtures conforms to the specified limits in order to handle the weight of traffic. Marshall stability tests were conducted according to ASTM D6927.
According to the technical specifications of the General Directorate of Highways of Turkey, for HMA mixtures intended for use in the wearing course, the stability is specified to be a minimum of 900 kgf. Thus, it was important in this study to ensure that all mixtures met the predetermined minimum criterion.

3.3. Indirect Tensile (IDT) Test

In order to evaluate the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures, the indirect tensile (IDT) test was implemented at 20 °C and −10 °C. The IDT test can be used to assess the bottom-up fatigue cracking and low-temperature cracking performance of asphalt mixtures. The IDT test is commonly employed due to its simplicity, as it measures a material’s resistance to cracking by assessing its tensile strength, whereby higher values indicate better crack resistance [44]. In the meantime, asphalt mixtures that possess the ability to endure significant strain without failing are generally more resistant to cracking [45]. The testing of the Marshall samples with 100 mm diameter in this study was conducted using the ASTM D6931 standard test method for the indirect tensile (IDT) strength of asphalt mixtures [46]. The test setup is shown in Figure 3. The IDT test was conducted using the Multiplex universal electromechanical testing machine produced by the UTEST company. The frame capacity of the testing machine was 50 kN. A load cell with 50 kN capacity and a displacement transducer with a 25 mm range and 0.001 mm resolution were available in the testing setup. In this study, the data acquisition box was connected to the computer, and test control was managed using the software provided by the producer. The samples were subjected to a consistent loading rate of 50 mm/min during testing in the direction of their diametric plane. Before testing at the designated temperature, all asphalt mixture samples were conditioned in a cooling chamber for a minimum of 4 h. One of the parameters obtained as a result of this test was the IDT strength. The IDT strength was determined by dividing the maximum load applied to the sample by geometrical factors, as specified in Equation (1):
S t = 2000 P π t D
where St is equal to the IDT strength (kPa), P is the peak load (N), t is the sample thickness (mm), and D is the diameter of sample (mm).
Using the load–displacement curves obtained from the IDT tests, the fracture work and fracture work density values were computed for all mixtures. Fracture work refers to the energy needed to produce the total failure of a specimen. In other words, the calculation of fracture work involves measuring the area under the load–displacement curve up until the load reaches zero again. To eliminate the influence of specimen geometry, the fracture work is transformed into fracture work density. The fracture work is converted by dividing it by the volume of the specimen. There is a correlation between the fracture work density obtained at an intermediate temperature and the bottom-up fatigue cracking performance in the field [47], while the fracture work density performed at low temperatures is indicative of thermal cracking resistance [48]. The presence of a higher fracture work density strongly suggests a greater level of resistance to cracking.
Figure 4 illustrates the typical load–vertical displacement curve obtained from the IDT test conducted at 20 °C. The peak load is used to calculate the IDT strength, and the fracture work is the area under the curve. Dividing the fracture work by the volume of the specimen enables us to determine the fracture work density. The fracture work density data obtained from the IDT test were utilized in this study to assess the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. Volumetric Tests

Certain factors had a substantial impact on the volumetric properties of H, W, and W2 mixtures such as the fiber type, fiber content, WMA additive, and mixing and compaction temperatures. As stated in the sample preparation section, the mix design aimed to achieve a target of 4% air voids. The air void results for mixtures containing different ratios of steel and glass fibers are presented in Figure 5 and Figure 6, respectively. As can be clearly seen in Figure 5, as the steel fiber content increases, the amount of air voids increases in all mixture types. The air void content of the H and W2 samples are observed to be very similar to each other across almost all steel fiber contents. This indicates that the WMA additive enhances the workability and compactability of the mixtures, even though the mixing and compaction temperatures were reduced by 15 °C in the W2 mixtures. The air voids in the W mixtures, which were produced at the same production temperature as the H samples and utilized WMA additives, were found to be lower than those in the H and W2 mixtures. As the steel fiber content increases, the difference in air voids between the W mixtures and the other mixtures also increases.
As depicted in Figure 6, the air voids in all mixtures increase with a rise in glass fiber content, similar to that of steel fiber. Although the air voids in the H and W2 mixtures were close to each other for glass fiber contents up to 0.4%, it was observed that the air voids in the H mixtures were higher than the W2 mixtures when the glass fiber content was above 0.4%. This indicates that the compactability of W2 mixtures with high glass fiber content is superior to that of H samples. The fact that this was achieved despite the low production temperatures highlights the effectiveness of the WMA additive. The air voids in the W mixtures, which were produced with WMA additives at the same production temperatures as the H mixtures, were found to be smaller than those in the H and W2 mixtures for all glass fiber content ratios. As a result, for both types of fibers, an increase in the fiber additive content led to an increase in air voids. However, the utilization of WMA additives improved the compactability even at lower production temperatures.

4.2. Marshall Stability

Similar to volumetric properties, the Marshall stability performance of H, W, and W2 mixtures significantly depended on the fiber type, fiber content, WMA additive, and mixing and compaction temperatures. The Marshall stability test results of steel- and glass-fiber-added mixtures are presented in Figure 7. As shown in Figure 7a, the introduction of steel fibers did not lead to a notable impact on the stability values. The results show that the use of 5% steel fiber, which is a very high rate, causes a more significant decrease in stability values compared to other rates. It was determined that the stability values of H, W, and W2 mixtures for each steel fiber content were close to each other, with the largest difference occurring in H and W mixtures with 1% steel fiber content, and this value was less than 20%.
Based on the results of the glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt mixture samples shown in Figure 7b, the stability values of samples containing 0.2% and 0.4% glass fiber additives are similar to those of the samples without additives. However, the stability values decrease when 0.6% or more glass fibers is used. The stability values of H mixtures containing 0.8% and 1% glass fiber additives were found to be significantly lower than those of samples containing WMA additives (W and W2). Additionally, the stability values of the H mixtures containing 0.8% and 1% glass fiber content and the W2 mixture containing 1% glass fiber content were lower than the limit of 900 kgf specified in the technical specifications of the General Directorate of Highways of Turkey.
Consequently, the addition of steel fibers up to 3% did not have a significant effect on the Marshall stability value of H, W, and W2 mixture types. The use of more than 0.4% glass fibers resulted in decreased Marshall stability values. Furthermore, using 0.8% or more glass fibers notably worsened the stability performance, particularly in H mixtures.

4.3. IDT Test

Indirect tensile tests were performed at two different temperatures, −10 °C and 20 °C, respectively, to characterize the low-temperature cracking resistance and bottom-up fatigue cracking resistance of asphalt concrete samples. The samples were brought to the target test temperature by keeping them in a refrigerated incubator for a minimum of 4 h. As a result of the tests, the load–deformation curves were obtained. Using these curves, two important parameters were calculated. The first value was the indirect tensile (IDT) strength, calculated using the peak compressive load at loading, as discussed in the previous sections. The second value was the fracture work density. To find this value, the area under the load–deformation curve was used, which represents the fracture work. To make this value independent of sample dimensions, fracture work density is determined by dividing the fracture work by the sample’s volume. Resistance to low-temperature cracks and fatigue crack resistance were evaluated according to the fracture work density. The indirect tensile test results for steel-fiber- and glass-fiber-reinforced samples are given in Table 7 and Table 8, respectively. In these tables, the IDT strength and fracture work density (FWD) values are given for each mixture type.
The results indicate that the incorporation of fibers did not yield any substantial positive effects on the IDT strength. As discussed in the previous sections, there is a correlation between the fracture work density obtained at an intermediate temperature and the performance of bottom-up fatigue cracking in field conditions [47]. The fracture work density obtained at a low temperature is indicative of thermal cracking resistance [48]. Thus, to characterize the low-temperature cracking resistance and fatigue cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures, the fracture work density parameter was used. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the fracture work density of steel- and glass-fiber-reinforced mixtures obtained from indirect tensile tests at two different test temperatures. Based on the fracture work density values obtained at a test temperature of −10 °C, as shown in Figure 8a, it appears that the addition of steel fibers to the H mixtures does not significantly affect the fracture work density. However, the addition of 2% or more steel fibers to the W and W2 mixtures shows a significant increase in fracture work density. This suggests that the use of 2% or more steel fibers in the W and W2 mixtures can improve the low-temperature cracking resistance of the mixtures. According to the test results shown in Figure 8b at a test temperature of 20 °C, the addition of steel fibers slightly increased the fracture work density, but this increase remained below 20%. Furthermore, it was observed that the fracture work density of the H mixtures was approximately 10–20% higher than that of the W and W2 mixtures at all steel fiber additive ratios.
The fracture work density values obtained for the glass-fiber-reinforced mixtures at a test temperature of −10 °C are shown in Figure 9a. The results show that the addition of glass fibers to all H, W, and W2 mixtures significantly increases the fracture work density. When a 0.6% glass fiber additive was used, the fracture work density of the H, W, and W2 mixtures was more than twice that of the mixtures without a fiber additive. When using 0.8% or more glass fiber, the fracture work density of the mixtures with a glass fiber additive increased to approximately three times that of the mixtures without a fiber additive. The results indicated that the addition of glass fibers significantly enhanced the low-temperature cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures. The similar performances of H and W2 mixtures indicated that asphalt mixtures produced with the Sasobit additive at lower production temperatures could achieve similar performance with HMA. The IDT test results of glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt mixture samples performed at a test temperature of 20 °C are shown in Figure 9b. The highest fracture work density was observed when using 0.6% and 0.8% glass fiber. Compared to mixtures without glass fiber, the fracture work density increased by approximately 60%. However, a decreasing trend in the values was observed when using 1% glass fiber. Due to their high tensile strength, fibers can enhance cracking resistance when added at certain dosages. The existing tensile stresses in the mixture, under loading, are transferred through the fibers. This mechanism increases absorbed strain energy during loading. Although the fracture work density of the H, W, and W2 mixtures were similar, it was observed that the H mixtures had slightly higher values than W and W2. The results obtained from the samples without any fiber additives indicate that the Sasobit additive alone does not exhibit a positive effect on fatigue cracking and low-temperature cracking resistance. As a result, the utilization of a glass fiber additive can lead to a substantial improvement in the resistance of asphalt mixtures against fatigue cracking. The similar performance of H and W2 mixtures indicates that W2 mixtures produced at lower mixing and compaction temperatures, which are 15 °C lower than hot mix asphalt (H), can achieve a similar level of improvement.
The outcomes obtained for both types of fibers reveal that the inclusion of glass fibers leads to a considerably greater enhancement in fracture work density values compared to steel fibers. Therefore, it can be concluded that glass fibers enhance the fatigue and low-temperature cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures to a greater extent than steel fibers.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures containing steel and glass fibers and produced at different mixing and compaction temperatures using a WMA additive was investigated. Based on the results of the volumetric and performance tests, it was concluded that the cracking performance of the asphalt mixtures improved depending on the type and ratio of fiber additives used. Furthermore, the WMA additive enhanced the workability and compactability of the fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures without compromising the cracking performance, despite the low production temperatures. The primary benefits of employing WMA technologies are the decrease in energy expenses and emissions, which result from reducing mixing and compaction temperatures. Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
  • The WMA additive improves the compactability of fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures, as evidenced by the volumetric test results. Furthermore, even in samples produced at 15 °C lower mixing and compaction temperatures, the air void values were found to be the same or lower than those of HMA mixtures containing fibers.
  • According to the IDT test results, glass fibers significantly improve the low temperature cracking performance of asphalt mixtures when using 0.6% and 0.8% glass fibers with respect to total mixture weight. Furthermore, the findings indicate that the low-temperature cracking resistance of the HMA samples was parallel to that of the samples prepared using the WMA additive at 15 °C lower mixing and compaction temperatures than the HMA mixtures.
  • Although not to the same extent as glass fibers, the use of 2% or more steel fibers improves the low-temperature cracking performance of WMA-added asphalt mixtures.
  • It was determined that the use of steel fibers did not make a significant contribution to the fatigue cracking resistance of the asphalt mixture. However, the use of glass fibers in certain proportions improved the bottom-up fatigue cracking resistance of the mixtures. Additionally, it was found that for both types of fibers, the fatigue cracking performance of HMA mixtures was slightly better than that of WMA-additive-added mixtures.
In this study, the effects of using WMA additives in fiber-containing asphalt mixtures on compactability and cracking resistance were investigated. This study only focused on the cracking resistance performance of steel- and glass-fiber-reinforced asphalt mixtures produced at different temperatures using WMA additives. Additional performance parameters should be investigated in future studies. It is recommended that further studies should be conducted on this subject, supported by the findings from additional performance tests on the mixture types discussed in this study, as well as their field applications.

Funding

This research was supported by the Aydın Adnan Menderes University Research Fund. Project Number: MF-20001.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Llopis-Castelló, D.; García-Segura, T.; Montalbán-Domingo, L.; Sanz-Benlloch, A.; Pellicer, E. Influence of Pavement Structure, Traffic, and Weather on Urban Flexible Pavement Deterioration. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Titus-Glover, L.; Darter, M.I.; Von Quintus, H.L. Impact of Environmental Factors on Pavement Performance in the Absence of Heavy Loads; Federal Highway Administration. Office of Infrastructure Research and Development: McLean, VA, USA, 2019.
  3. Li, J.; Yang, L.; He, L.; Guo, R.; Li, X.; Chen, Y.; Muhammad, Y.; Liu, Y. Research Progresses of Fibers in Asphalt and Cement Materials: A Review. J. Road Eng. 2023, 3, 35–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Mashaan, N.; Karim, M.; Khodary, F.; Saboo, N.; Milad, A. Bituminous Pavement Reinforcement with Fiber: A Review. CivilEng 2021, 2, 599–611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Riccardi, C.; Indacoechea, I.; Wang, D.; Lastra-González, P.; Cannone Falchetto, A.; Castro-Fresno, D. Low Temperature Performances of Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures for Surface, Binder, and Base Layers. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 2023, 206, 103738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Hui, Y.; Men, G.; Xiao, P.; Tang, Q.; Han, F.; Kang, A.; Wu, Z. Recent Advances in Basalt Fiber Reinforced Asphalt Mixture for Pavement Applications. Materials 2022, 15, 6826. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Mrema, A.H.; Noh, S.-H.; Kwon, O.-S.; Lee, J.-J. Performance of Glass Wool Fibers in Asphalt Concrete Mixtures. Materials 2020, 13, 4699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Gupta, A.; Rodriguez-Hernandez, J.; Castro-Fresno, D. Incorporation of Additives and Fibers in Porous Asphalt Mixtures: A Review. Materials 2019, 12, 3156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Riccardi, C.; Wang, D.; Wistuba, M.P.; Walther, A. Effects of Polyacrylonitrile Fibres and High Content of RAP on Mechanical Properties of Asphalt Mixtures in Binder and Base Layers. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 2023, 24, 2133–2155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Stempihar, J.J.; Souliman, M.I.; Kaloush, K.E. Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Concrete as Sustainable Paving Material for Airfields. Transp. Res. Rec. 2012, 2266, 60–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Slebi-Acevedo, C.J.; Lastra-González, P.; Pascual-Muñoz, P.; Castro-Fresno, D. Mechanical Performance of Fibers in Hot Mix Asphalt: A Review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 200, 756–769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Hasan, R.; Ali, A.; Decarlo, C.; Elshaer, M.; Mehta, Y. Laboratory Evaluation of Electrically Conductive Asphalt Mixtures for Snow and Ice Removal Applications. Transp. Res. Rec. 2021, 2675, 48–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Sun, Y.; Wu, S.; Liu, Q.; Zeng, W.; Chen, Z.; Ye, Q.; Pan, P. Self-Healing Performance of Asphalt Mixtures through Heating Fibers or Aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 150, 673–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Liu, Q.; Schlangen, E.; Van De Ven, M.; Van Bochove, G.; Van Montfort, J. Evaluation of the Induction Healing Effect of Porous Asphalt Concrete through Four Point Bending Fatigue Test. Constr. Build. Mater. 2012, 29, 403–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Park, P.; El-Tawil, S.; Park, S.Y.; Naaman, A.E. Cracking Resistance of Fiber Reinforced Asphalt Concrete at −20 °C. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 81, 47–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Wang, H.; Yang, J.; Liao, H.; Chen, X. Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Asphalt Concrete Containing Conductive Fibers and Fillers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 122, 184–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Mahrez, A.; Karim, M.; Katman, H. Prospect of Using Glass Fiber Reinforced Bituminous Mixes. J. East. Asia Soc. Transp. Stud. 2003, 5, 794–807. [Google Scholar]
  18. Mahrez, A.; Karim, M.R.; BT Katman, H.Y. Fatigue and Deformation Properties of Glass Fiber Reinforced Bituminous Mixes. J. East. Asia Soc. Transp. Stud. 2005, 6, 997–1007. [Google Scholar]
  19. Morea, F.; Zerbino, R. Improvement of Asphalt Mixture Performance with Glass Macro-Fibers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 164, 113–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Mohammed, M.; Parry, T.; Thom, N.; Grenfell, J. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Fibre Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 240, 117932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Ziari, H.; Aliha, M.R.M.; Moniri, A.; Saghafi, Y. Crack Resistance of Hot Mix Asphalt Containing Different Percentages of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement and Glass Fiber. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 230, 117015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Anas, S.M.; Alam, M.; Isleem, H.F.; Najm, H.M.; Sabri, M.M.S. Ultra High Performance Concrete and C-FRP Tension Re-Bars: A Unique Combinations of Materials for Slabs Subjected to Low-Velocity Drop Impact Loading. Front. Mater. 2022, 9, 1061297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Anas, S.M.; Alam, M.; Umair, M. Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Performance of Reinforced Concrete Slabs under Explosive-Induced Air-Blast Loading: A State-of-the-Art Review. Structures 2021, 31, 428–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Chen, H.; Xu, Q. Experimental Study of Fibers in Stabilizing and Reinforcing Asphalt Binder. Fuel 2010, 89, 1616–1622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kutay, M.; Gibson, N.; Youtcheff, J. Conventional and Viscoelastic Continuum Damage (VECD)-Based Fatigue Analysis of Polymer Modified Asphalt Pavements (with Discussion). J. Assoc. Asphalt Paving Technol. 2008, 77, 395–434. [Google Scholar]
  26. Williams, B.A.; Willis, J.R.; Ross, T.C. Asphalt Pavement Industry Survey on Recycled Materials and Warm-Mix Asphalt Usage: 2018. In Information Series 138, 9th ed.; National Asphalt Pavement Association: Greenbelt, MD, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  27. EAPA. Asphalt in Figures 2021; EAPA: Brussels, Belgium, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  28. Fakhri, M.; Hosseini, S.A. Laboratory Evaluation of Rutting and Moisture Damage Resistance of Glass Fiber Modified Warm Mix Asphalt Incorporating High RAP Proportion. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 134, 626–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Bennert, T.; Reinke, G.; Mogawer, W.; Mooney, K. Assessment of Workability and Compactability of Warm-Mix Asphalt. Transp. Res. Rec. 2010, 2180, 36–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Kristjánsdóttir, Ó.; Muench, S.T.; Michael, L.; Burke, G. Assessing Potential for Warm-Mix Asphalt Technology Adoption. Transp. Res. Rec. 2007, 2040, 91–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Yucel, A.O.; Ozturk, H.I.; Guler, M. Influence of Warm Mix Additive on Internal Structure of Dry Process Crumb Rubber Modified Mixtures. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 313, 127959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Ozturk, H.I.; Kamran, F. Laboratory Evaluation of Dry Process Crumb Rubber Modified Mixtures Containing Warm Mix Asphalt Additives. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 229, 116940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Alfalah, A.; Offenbacker, D.; Ali, A.; Mehta, Y.; Elshaer, M.; Decarlo, C. Evaluating the Impact of Fiber Type and Dosage Rate on Laboratory Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 310, 125217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Yu, H.; Leng, Z.; Dong, Z.; Tan, Z.; Guo, F.; Yan, J. Workability and Mechanical Property Characterization of Asphalt Rubber Mixtures Modified with Various Warm Mix Asphalt Additives. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 175, 392–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Varuna, M.; Sunil, S.; Anjneyappa; Amarnath, M.S. Studies on Warm Stone Asphalt Mixes Using Natural and Synthetic Fibres. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 46, 5098–5103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. General Directorate of Highways. State Highways Technical Specifications (HTS); General Directorate of Highways: Ankara, Turkey, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  37. d’Angelo, J.; Harm, E.; Bartoszek, J.; Baumgardner, G.; Corrigan, M.; Cowsert, J.; Harman, T.; Jamshidi, M.; Jones, W.; Newcomb, D.; et al. Warm-Mix Asphalt: European Practice; Federal Highway Administration: Washington, DC, USA, 2008.
  38. Jamshidi, A.; Hamzah, M.O.; You, Z. Performance of Warm Mix Asphalt Containing Sasobit®: State-of-the-Art. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 38, 530–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ramesh, A.; Venkat Ramayya, V.; Sandeep Reddy, G.; Vinayaka Ram, V. Investigations on Fracture Response of Warm Mix Asphalt Mixtures with Nano Glass Fibres and Partially Replaced RAP Material. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 317, 126121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Pirmohammad, S.; Hojjati Mengharpey, M. Influence of Natural Fibers on Fracture Strength of WMA (Warm Mix Asphalt) Concretes Using a New Fracture Test Specimen. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 251, 118927. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Mansourian, A.; Razmi, A.; Razavi, M. Evaluation of Fracture Resistance of Warm Mix Asphalt Containing Jute Fibers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 117, 37–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Prowell, B.D.; Schreck, R.J.; Sasaki, S. Evaluation of compaction benefits of foamed asphalt mixtures at varying production temperatures. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Warm-Mix Conference, St. Louis, MO, USA, 11 October 2011; pp. 11–13. [Google Scholar]
  43. Hurley, G.C.; Prowell, B.D.; Reinke, G.; Joskowicz, P.; Davis, R.; Scherocman, J.; Brown, S.; Hongbin, X.; Bonte, D. Evaluation of Potential Processes for Use in Warm Mix Asphalt. J. Assoc. Asph. Paving Technol. 2006, 75, 41–90. [Google Scholar]
  44. Radeef, H.R.; Hassan, N.A.; Abidin, A.R.Z.; Mahmud, M.Z.H.; Satar, M.K.I.M.; Warid, M.N.M.; Saffar, Z.H. Al Determining Fracture Energy in Asphalt Mixture: A Review. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021, 682, 12069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Islam, M.R.; Hossain, M.I.; Tarefder, R.A. A Study of Asphalt Aging Using Indirect Tensile Strength Test. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 95, 218–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. ASTM D6931; Standard Test Method for Indirect Tensile (IDT) Strength of Bituminous Mixtures. American Society for Testing and Materials: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2012.
  47. Wen, H. Use of Fracture Work Density Obtained from Indirect Tensile Testing for the Mix Design and Development of a Fatigue Model. Int. J. Pavement Eng. 2013, 14, 561–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Wu, S.; Wen, H.; Chaney, S.; Littleton, K.; Muench, S. Evaluation of Long-Term Performance of Stone Matrix Asphalt in Washington State. J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2017, 31, 4016074. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 15 13356 g001
Figure 1. Design gradation chart.
Figure 1. Design gradation chart.
Sustainability 15 13356 g001
Sustainability 15 13356 g002
Figure 2. Steel and glass fiber.
Figure 2. Steel and glass fiber.
Sustainability 15 13356 g002
Sustainability 15 13356 g003
Figure 3. IDT test setup.
Figure 3. IDT test setup.
Sustainability 15 13356 g003
Sustainability 15 13356 g004
Figure 4. A typical load–deformation curve is obtained from the IDT test conducted at 20 °C.
Figure 4. A typical load–deformation curve is obtained from the IDT test conducted at 20 °C.
Sustainability 15 13356 g004
Sustainability 15 13356 g005
Figure 5. Air void results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel fibers.
Figure 5. Air void results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel fibers.
Sustainability 15 13356 g005
Sustainability 15 13356 g006
Figure 6. Air void results of asphalt mixture samples containing glass fibers.
Figure 6. Air void results of asphalt mixture samples containing glass fibers.
Sustainability 15 13356 g006
Sustainability 15 13356 g007
Figure 7. Marshall stability test results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel and glass fibers: (a) mixtures containing steel fibers; (b) mixtures containing glass fibers.
Figure 7. Marshall stability test results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel and glass fibers: (a) mixtures containing steel fibers; (b) mixtures containing glass fibers.
Sustainability 15 13356 g007
Sustainability 15 13356 g008
Figure 8. Fracture work density results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel fibers: (a) −10 °C test temperature; (b) 20 °C test temperature.
Figure 8. Fracture work density results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel fibers: (a) −10 °C test temperature; (b) 20 °C test temperature.
Sustainability 15 13356 g008
Sustainability 15 13356 g009
Figure 9. Fracture work density results of asphalt mixture samples containing glass fibers: (a) −10 °C test temperature; (b) 20 °C test temperature.
Figure 9. Fracture work density results of asphalt mixture samples containing glass fibers: (a) −10 °C test temperature; (b) 20 °C test temperature.
Sustainability 15 13356 g009
Table 1. Design gradation.
Table 1. Design gradation.
Sieve Size (mm)19
(3/4″)		12.5 (1/2″)9.5 (3/8″)4.75 (No. 4)2.00 (No. 10)0.425 (No. 40)0.180 (No. 80)0.075 (No. 200)
Specification limits (Passing, %)10088–10072–9042–5225–3510–207–143–8
Selected gradation (Passing, %)100958542251073
Table 2. Aggregate properties.
Table 2. Aggregate properties.
Property StandardResult
Specific gravity for coarse aggregateBulk ASTM C1272.673
SSD 2.683
Apparent 2.701
Absorption (%)- 0.396
Specific gravity for fine aggregateBulk ASTM C1282.666
SSD 2.680
Apparent 2.702
Absorption (%)- 0.500
Specific gravity for fillerApparentASTM D8542.730
Los Angeles abrasion (%)-ASTM C13127
Table 3. Asphalt binder properties.
Table 3. Asphalt binder properties.
PropertyStandardResultProperty
Binder grade-Pen 50/70Binder grade
Penetration (25 °C; 0.1 mm)ASTM D555Penetration (25 °C; 0.1 mm)
DuctilityASTM D113>100Ductility
Flash point (°C)ASTM D92>230Flash point (°C)
Softening point (°C)ASTM D3650Softening point (°C)
Specific gravity Gb (gr/cm3)ASTM C701.037Specific gravity Gb (gr/cm3)
Table 4. Steel and glass fiber properties.
Table 4. Steel and glass fiber properties.
Steel FiberGlass Fiber
Length (mm)6Length (mm)12
Diameter (mm)0.16Fiber diameter (micron)13–15
Tensile strength (Mpa)3000Tensile strength (Mpa)3400
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)200Modulus of elasticity (GPa)77
Application temperature limits (°C)−60/+650
Melting temperature (°C)1120
Specific gravity (gr/cc)2.60
Table 5. Summary of mixture types produced in this study.
Table 5. Summary of mixture types produced in this study.
Mixture Preparation MethodsLabelMixing and Compaction Temp. (°C)WMA AdditiveFiber TypeFiber Content (%)
Method-1H155–145-Steel (S)0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5
Glass (GL)0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1
Method-2W155–145SasobitSteel (S)0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5
Glass (GL)0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1
Method-3W2140–130SasobitSteel (S)0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5
Glass (GL)0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1
Table 6. Marshall mix design summary.
Table 6. Marshall mix design summary.
Specification CriteriaDesign
Min.Max.
Marshall stability, kgf900 1157
Air voids, %354
Voids filled with asphalt (VFA), %657573
Voids in mineral aggregates (VMA), %141614.25
Flow, mm243.8
Filler/binder ratio 1.50.6
Asphalt binder, %474.85
Table 7. IDT test results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel fibers.
Table 7. IDT test results of asphalt mixture samples containing steel fibers.
Test Temperature (°C)Mixture TypeParameterSteel Fiber Content (%)
00.51235
−10HIDT Strength (MPa)4.054.044.014.013.673.96
FWD (kPa)40.6440.4236.3837.9935.0935.99
WIDT Strength (MPa)3.904.044.064.143.804.04
FWD (kPa)41.1045.3443.6555.9151.2192.69
W2IDT Strength (MPa)3.953.924.213.743.883.90
FWD (kPa)34.9139.9239.1452.3266.3664.61
20HIDT Strength (MPa)1.711.641.541.431.391.48
FWD (kPa)112.81120.65116.54120.72131.03130.80
WIDT Strength (MPa)1.691.701.571.371.481.52
FWD (kPa)99.1096.31107.39107.91111.33104.10
W2IDT Strength (MPa)1.581.511.541.431.461.36
FWD (kPa)97.9394.3494.71107.44104.36108.51
Table 8. IDT test results of asphalt mixture samples containing glass fibers.
Table 8. IDT test results of asphalt mixture samples containing glass fibers.
Test Temperature (°C)Mixture TypeParameterGlass Fiber Content (%)
00.20.40.60.81
−10HIDT Strength (MPa)4.053.943.693.503.033.00
FWD (kPa)40.6489.8479.8887.4297.41122.28
WIDT Strength (MPa)3.904.224.133.923.733.04
FWD (kPa)41.1079.3986.5688.5998.79100.35
W2IDT Strength (MPa)3.953.824.003.923.663.03
FWD (kPa)34.9171.0285.8089.49104.3894.70
20HIDT Strength (MPa)1.711.571.471.211.211.00
FWD (kPa)112.81137.35141.46172.21169.21137.90
WIDT Strength (MPa)1.691.631.541.721.471.26
FWD (kPa)99.10109.56142.70157.81151.54130.24
W2IDT Strength (MPa)1.581.491.561.411.471.29
FWD (kPa)97.93113.08123.32138.32154.30121.93
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Yucel, A.O. An Evaluation of the Cracking Resistance of Steel- and Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures Produced at Different Temperatures. Sustainability 2023, 15, 13356. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813356

AMA Style

Yucel AO. An Evaluation of the Cracking Resistance of Steel- and Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures Produced at Different Temperatures. Sustainability. 2023; 15(18):13356. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813356

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yucel, Ayhan Oner. 2023. "An Evaluation of the Cracking Resistance of Steel- and Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Asphalt Mixtures Produced at Different Temperatures" Sustainability 15, no. 18: 13356. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813356

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop