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Article

Role of Online Time-Spatial Job Crafting and Leisure Crafting on Remote Work Performance through Tele-Pressure and Techno-Self-Efficacy

by
Jiatong Wang
1,
Yong Xiong
2,*,
Majid Murad
3,*,
Naveed Iqbal Chaudhary
4 and
Hira Waqar
4
1
School of International Business, Zhejiang Yuexiu University, Shaoxing 312001, China
2
College of International Education, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
3
School of Management, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
4
Department of Business Administration, Gujranwala Campus, University of the Punjab, Lahore 52250, Pakistan
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(15), 11936; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511936
Submission received: 7 July 2023 / Revised: 1 August 2023 / Accepted: 2 August 2023 / Published: 3 August 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ethical Leadership in Sustainable Organization Management)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Remote work is becoming an inevitable practice in today’s business world which has transformed all business operations in times of COVID-19. This study aims to explore the roles of online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting for dealing with tele-pressure and techno-self-efficacy for improving remote work performance. Data are gathered through an online survey of 486 employees working in the IT sector of Pakistan and the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique is used to analyze the hypothesis relationships. The results show that online job crafting and leisure crafting positively and significantly influence remote work performance. Moreover, findings indicate that tele-pressure partially mediates the relationship between online time job crafting and leisure crafting on remote work performance. Results also show that techno-self-efficacy positively moderates the relationship between online time job crafting and leisure crafting on tele-pressure. The findings provide insightful suggestions for building a collaborative remote workplace at the individual and collective level to implement job crafting interventions and enrich workers’ personal and organizational resources, which is helpful to cope with current challenges.

1. Introduction

The concept of remote work is not new; the COVID-19 virus has abruptly changed the nature of remote work or work from home for different sectors of employees [1]. The spread of the Coronavirus in Pakistan started in February 2020 and there was a dire need to formulate policies to control the transmission of the virus. Extensive closures and lockdowns were imposed to eliminate face-to-face dealings, and to maintain social distance [2]. Many organizations were strictly bound to shut down their offices, almost 81% of the global workforce has encountered workplace shutdowns [3]. In this situation, expanding remote working culture in organizations is viewed as a temporary solution of COVID-19 pandemic [4]. According to [5], during the COVID-19 pandemic, most jobs were offered online, and 29.2 percent of all remote jobs are reported from the information and communication technology (ICT) sectors. Moreover, with the emergence of remote work trends and the massive use of information and communication technologies in recent years, techno-stress has become an important issue for many organizations [6,7]. With the advancement in information and communication technologies, ICTs capabilities, high-speed internet, high-tech tools, and remote working, sometimes referred to as telecommuting, developed into a new approach to work [8]. However, one of the prominent aspects of remote working in relation to employees performance is stress due to the overuse of different technologies [9]. When a new technology is introduced in an organization, inexperienced workers face difficulty in interacting with new technologies, which leads to stress and discomfort [10].
Techno-stress is related to stress caused by individuals’ inability to deal with information and communication technology in an effective manner [11]. Techno-stress is defined as the stress that a person experiences as a result of their use of information and communication systems and technologies [12,13]. It is a worldwide phenomenon that is experienced by employees across national borders. A prior study argued that remote working and work from home during the COVID-19 enhance techno-stress and tele-pressure in employees [14]. Remote workers need to be continuously connected to work, which can negatively affect workers’ well-being and performance by persuading tele-pressure [15]. Techno-stress has an adverse impact on organizations. Workplace stress costs billions of dollars annually as employee productivity is decreased, absenteeism, staff turnover, and insurance [16]. Therefore, organizations anticipate technology-induced stress and adopt the best policies to mitigate remote work-related techno-stress and tele-pressure by providing more flexible job designs [10].
Given the above challenges, online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting serves as an important proactive factor that can help employees make adjustments in new domains of work, by making jobs more flexible [17,18]. Previous researchers [19] introduced the term “time-spatial job crafting” which refers to management of the online working environment and hours to stay productive. Leisure crafting is defined as a strategy to proactively follow leisure activities, learning, and personal growth [20]. Existing research stated that leisure crafting has a negative impact on emotional exhaustion in telework during the COVID-19 pandemic [18]. Leisure crafting plays a productive role in mitigating the negative consequences of remote working under extensive use of technologies [18].
This study contributes to fill the research gap in the literature of the following aspects. First, numerous studies have linked time-spatial job crafting to employee engagement [17]; proactive personality [21]; work engagement [22]; and flexibility in the work [19], but did not examine how to maximize the output of remote work during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the past few years’ techno-stress has been a subject of consideration for scholars [23,24], but only a few have highlighted the creators of techno-stress at work [10]. Second, prior studies examined the direct role of leisure crafting on emotional exhaustion in telework [18]; autonomy need satisfaction [20]; and home crafting [25]. This study examines the direct impact of online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting on remote work performance in the presence of tele-pressure. Tele-pressure, related response to message-based ICTs for work purposes [26]. Third, this study also identifies the moderating role of techno-self-efficacy in the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting on tele-pressure. Techno-self-efficacy is a key element for executing technology-oriented tasks as a person believes in him/her capacity that inspires them to deal with unspecified situations [27]. Fourth, this study contributes to the body of knowledge on the self-efficacy theory, online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting, and remote work that ultimately supports the business community in overcoming remote work-related challenges.

2. Theory and Hypotheses Development

2.1. Self-Efficacy Theory

This theory was introduced by Bandura in 1977, a professor of psychology, who stated, “self-efficacy is how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with the prospective situation” [28]. Self-efficacy refers to a person’s behavior as they deal with their circumstances according to their capabilities [29]. There are four primary sources involved in influencing self-efficacy, (i) mastery experiences, (ii) vicarious experiences, (iii) social persuasion, and (iv) emotional state [30]. Self-efficacy has been linked with numerous benefits, such as resilience to adversity and stress, healthy lifestyle habits, improved employee performance [31], and educational achievement [32].
This study linked self-efficacy theory to the conceptual model, as self-efficacy refers to individuals self-perception of his/her performance of tasks [27]. In the context of this study, self-efficacy theory establishes when an individual has self-confidence in his/her ability to handle techno-stress and tele-pressure. High self-efficacy helps individuals consciously determine to feel confident to effectively organize their job resources through time-spatial crafting [17]. Self-efficacy belief in oneself motivates a person to invest his/her free time in activities that lead towards goal achievement and personal development, which in turn, can help to alleviate technology-related stressors and pressure in remote work [14].

2.2. Online Time-Spatial Job Crafting and Remote Work Performance

Existing research argued that online time-spatial job crafting is significantly associated with employee work performance [17]. Time-spatial job crafting is associated with proactive changes employees make to enhance their job resources, take advantages, and decrease hindering job demands [33]. Time-spatial job crafting helps employees to create an ideal fit between their tasks and working hours [19], by allowing them to formulate proactive changes in their working hours and location, to choose suitable working hours and locations that provide them a flexible remote working environment [34]. This provides the option to craft a job in a way that an individual can manage his/her working hours. Time-spatial job crafting also helps to identify where to work and overcome tele-pressure or when responding to work-related demands [35]. Moreover, empirical study revealed that employees engaged in job crafting can fulfill their role expectations and boundaries that produce positive consequences, such as increased productivity [36]. Ref. [37] remarked that when employees discover an ideal fit in flexible working hours and suitable locations, they get higher productivity and innovative work behavior. Therefore, time-spatial job crafting is valuable for achieving an employees’ compelling performance in remote work. Thus, the following hypothesis is stated:
H1: 
Time-spatial job crafting has a significant impact on remote work performance.

2.3. Leisure Crafting and Remote Work Performance

Leisure crafting is defined by [38] as a strategy to pursue leisure activities with aims of developing human connections, learning, and personal development. Leisure crafting plays an essential role in ideal remote work, by supporting free time in productive activities that lead toward goal achievement [39]. Remote workers must become familiar with a new work style accompanied by ICT’s, which can cause emotional exhaustion that ultimately impacts their work performance [40]. Leisure crafting reduces this emotional exhaustion, which, as a result, enhances remote workers’ performance [41]. Furthermore, leisure crafting encourages employees to explore possibilities and achieve their goals, which boosts their remote work performance. Indeed, ref. [38], argued that leisure crafting positively relates to job performance. In addition, ref. [18] remarked that leisure crafting was positively related to the emotional exhaustion in telework during the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, the following hypothesis is predicted:
H2: 
Leisure crafting has a significant impact on remote work performance.

2.4. Mediating Effect of Tele-Pressure

Prior studies have recognized the significant importance of workplace tele-pressure on worker well-being [26], employee recovery, and remote working [42]. Tele-pressure reflects a worker’s psychological response to perceived work demands, such as quick responses to work-related ICT messages [43]. Remote work is linked with technology that develops a state of fear, workers are worried about their job security and feel that one day they will be replaced with more technology-oriented workers [13]. However, job crafting can help to prevent workers’ techno-insecurity, as they can design their job according to their preferences. A previous study revealed a positive relationship between time-spatial job crafting and employee performance [44]. Companies that support time-spatial job crafting allow remote workers to design their online jobs according to their convenience, which leads to overcoming tele-pressure [42]. Employees who have control over job crafting working hours and job demands can adapt to new and unusual situations efficiently by adjusting their work environment [45]. In remote work, workers experience different stressors in which techno-stress and tele-pressure are very common [12]. Employees that are not experts in technology become concerned about their job and indulge in constant stress about not being able to perform high-tech tasks, which hinders their overall performance.
However, leisure crafting plays a significant role in handling tele-pressure and stimulating work performance of employees working remotely. Leisure crafting serves as an effective tool to alleviate tele-pressure. In leisure crafting, the individual engages in activities targeted toward learning and personal development [38]. Existing research [46] stated that engaging in leisure crafting to reduce stress is crucial for stimulating remote workers’ productivity. Leisure crafting enables remote workers to craft boundaries among work-related and private life-related tasks and responsibilities [47]. In addition, with time-spatial job crafting, employees are more likely to select hours that are appropriate for them to respond to work demands in specific hours. They are engaged in work and feel less tele-pressure [45]. Furthermore, prior study [19] supported the positive influence of time-spatial crafting on workers’ performance. Similarly, existing research argued that tele-pressure significantly impacts remote and onsite workers’ performance [42]. Therefore, workers with high level of tele-pressure are less engaged in managing job demands, time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting at work that ultimately decreased the remote working performance. Thus, the following hypotheses are predicted:
H3: 
Tele-pressure has a positive effect on remote work performance,
H3a: 
Tele-pressure significantly mediates the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting and remote work performance,
and
H3b: 
Tele-pressure significantly mediates the relationship between leisure crafting and remote work performance.

2.5. Moderating Role of Techno-Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is defined by [48], which refers to the adaption and change of an individual’s behaviors according to their environment [49]. Techno-self-efficacy is the belief in individuals’ ability to successfully perform ICT-related new tasks [27]. Techno-self-efficacy is defined as person’s self-confidence in his ability to perform technology-oriented tasks [50]. Individuals with higher techno-self-efficacy tend to be deliberately determined and fulfill their tasks under a stressful environment in those filed in which they own expertise. Techno-self-efficacy can be used to elevate the problems of techno-stress, as [27] revealed that technological self-efficacy has a moderation relationship between techno-stress and burnout. Meanwhile, ref. [51] remarked that technology self-efficacy moderates the connection between information technology support and user satisfaction.
Moreover, techno-self-efficacy serves as a stimulus indicator for employees to reflect and manage work according to their requirements. When individuals cannot disconnect from work, they face tele-pressure. However, techno-self-efficacy can help to establish the schedule of work, the times and place to work, and, as a result, reduce tele-pressure among online workers [52]. Techno-self-efficacy plays a vital role in making changes in work to avoid stress. An individual who believes in his/her ability to handle tele-pressure can combat the techno-stress and achieve higher remote work performance [50].
Furthermore, previous studies argued that time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting provides relief in high-strain jobs [18,45]. In time-spatial job crafting, employees reflect on specific job tasks and demands, and they have options to select workplaces, locations, and hours to perform their duties [25]. In leisure crafting, a person can make the best use of free time to increase their skill inventory to secure jobs and make connections that can support them in uncertain situations, thereby reducing tele-pressure at work [38]. However, to achieve optimum results in time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting, an individual must have a high level of techno-self-efficacy. Hence, the following hypotheses are established:
H4: 
Techno-self-efficacy has a positive and significant impact on tele-pressure,
H4a: 
Techno-self-efficacy significantly moderates the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting and tele-pressure,
and
H4b: 
Techno-self-efficacy significantly moderates the relationship between leisure crafting and tele-pressure.

2.6. Conceptual Model

The proposed conceptual model is depicted in Figure 1.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Population and Sampling Size

The target population of this study was employees working remotely in the information and technology IT sector of Pakistan. This study collected data from 30 IT companies working in Pakistan. The main reason behind targeting this sector is that COVID-19 has accelerated the tendency of remote working in the IT sector of Pakistan. During the COVID-19 pandemic, most IT companies became remote organizations with the highest remote workforce. This study applied a non-probability purposive sampling technique. This sampling technique enables to select participants that are most likely to yield appropriate and useful information with the problem being investigated. The sample unit for the survey was remote workers as they work remotely and are directly impacted by techno-stress and tele-pressure. According to previous researchers, appropriate sample size calculation has become a major issue in social sciences research [53]. The G* Power software 3.1.9 can help researchers to determine sample size and power calculation for different statistical models. Therefore, this study applied G* power to calculate the sample size. The findings show that the minimum sample size 200 is suitable for gathering data from participants.

3.2. Data Collection and Procedure

The nature of this study was cross-sectional and data were collected from full-time employees working remotely in the IT sector of Pakistan. The data was gathered from employees during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic (June 2021 to March 2022). After carefully considering the particular variables, an online survey was designed on Google Forms. The survey contained close-ended questions for relevant responses from participants. This online questionnaire was later circulated by sharing the link through WhatsApp, email, and relevant online platforms. Primarily, 700 questionnaire links were distributed among remote employees of IT companies through WhatsApp, email, and other social media platforms (e.g., Facebook groups). Finally, only 550 responses were retrieved. Sixty-four questionnaires were dropped in data scanning due to incomplete data responses. Finally, 486 questionnaires were reliable and valid for analysis. The respondents who were involved in this study survey were announced for their anonymity. The demographical representation of the employees who participated in the survey were: males, 58.8%; females, 41.2%; most common age group of employees was between 18–25 years, 51.4%; and most common years of experience of employees was between 1–3 years, 45.3%.

3.3. Measures

All the measurement constructs were adapted from past studies conducted on the literature of time-spatial job crafting, leisure crafting, techno-self-efficacy, tele-pressure, and remote work performance. A few items remained unchanged and applied as is, and some were modified accordingly because of the remote work and the COVID-19 contexts. This study used a five-point Likert scale 1 to 5 ranging from 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; and 5 = strongly agree.

3.3.1. Online Time-Spatial Job Crafting

Online time-spatial job crafting was assessed using four items adapted from the study by [19]. These items were slightly modified to measure how workers can alter their working conditions while working remotely. A sample item is “I carefully consider which work location is suitable for the task I am going to perform online during COVID-19”.

3.3.2. Leisure Crafting

To measure leisure crafting, this study used eight scale items adapted from the study by [38]. A sample item is “I try to build connections through leisure activities during the COVID-19 lockdown”.

3.3.3. Tele-Pressure

Tele-pressure was measured using six scale items developed by [54]; a modified version of these items were used to measure workers’ preoccupation and urge to check and respond to messages and emails. An example is “It is hard for me to focus on other things when I receive a message or email from someone at remote work”.

3.3.4. Remote Work Performance

Remote work performance was measured using three items adapted from [55] to analyze the performance level of remote workers during COVID-19 while working outside the office. A sample item is “I fulfill the responsibilities mentioned in the job description even when working away from the office in COVID-19”.

3.3.5. Techno-Self-Efficacy

Techno-self-efficacy was assessed by six items, that were positively associated with the response of participants taken from the computer user self-efficacy (CUSE) scale [56]; some changes were made in items with regards to remote work. One sample item is “I usually find it easy to learn how to use a new technology while working remotely”.

3.4. Common Method Bias

The issue of common method bias CMB is considered when all respondents used the same survey to obtain the data for the study parameters. CMB has the potential that can lead to erroneous and pervasive statistical biases regarding the study outcome [57]. Thus, this study performed Harman’s single-factor test to detect any common method bias. According to the results, a single factor shared a maximum variance of 39.06%, which is less than 50%. Hence, there is no common method bias issue since there is no display of one factor that explains more than 50% of the total variance.

4. Result

4.1. Data Analysis Technique

The partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique was used to assess the measurement model fitness. Prior studies have suggested the PLS-SEM analytical approach to produce reliable and accurate estimates in management research [58,59]. PLS-SEM is frequently used to estimate the theoretical and causal modeling links between constructs [60]. This is considered to be the most suitable method for a study with a sample size of more than 300 respondents [61]. This software helps researchers to analyze the direct, indirect, and moderating relationship among variables [62].

4.2. Measurement Model

For the measurement model analysis, this study performed several statistical tests such as factor loading, construct reliability, and validity on the empirical data. The results of factor loadings were presented in Table 1. It shows that all the item factor loadings have more than 0.70 values, as suggested by [61]. Moreover, to test the reliability and validity, this study used values of Cronbach’s alpha (CA), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). According to [58], suitable constructs have >0.70 Cronbach’s alpha, >0.80 composite reliability, and >0.50 average variance extracted values. In Table 1, it is observed that all the values of CA, CR, and AVE are above the threshold values. Furthermore, this study applies the variance inflation factor (VIF) criteria. As suggested by [63], the values of VIF should not exceed a statistical value of 5. The results indicated in Table 1 show that the highest VIF value is 4.364, highlighting no multi-collinearity issue in the data. Thus, this study attained satisfactory results in reliability and validity analysis.
This study further evaluated the discriminant validity among the constructs. Two approaches were applied on the constructs, the Fornell and Larcker and the Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio (HTMT). The Fornell & Larcker (1981) discriminant assessment considers the interaction between the square root of the AVE and the connection among the study variables [60]. The diagonal values in Table 2 show that the values of the square root of AVE are greater than the coefficients of the correlations of all variables among each other [61]. The Heterotrait–Monotrait ratio was also developed to assess the insensitivity of the criteria. As per [62], if the value of the HTMT ratio is closer to 0.90, it specifies a lack of discriminant validity in the path analysis. The values from Table 3 show that the maximum achieved HTMT value is (0.507), which is below 1. Thus, both criteria indicate good discriminant validity.

4.3. Structural Model

After validating the measurement model assessment, the next step is to evaluate the structural model of the study. The significance level of the proposed hypotheses was assessed through a 5000 bootstrapping method using Smart-PLS software version 4. This bootstrap technique has been applied in erstwhile studies that estimated their research findings using the PLS-SEM method [64,65]. The fitness of the structural model was assessed through the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) value [66]. According to ref. [67], a good model should have a SRMR value of 0.08. In this study, the value of SRMR was 0.045. Thus, the model has absolute fitness to test the hypothesis relationship further. Moreover, to assess the values of R2 and Q2, this study followed the criteria suggested by [61]. According to ref. [58] the values of R2 and Q2 should be greater than 0.10. The assessment of the R2 helps to explore the models’ precision, as recommended by previous studies [60,62]. R2 coefficient of (0.02 to 0.10) is weighted as weak, (0.10 to 0.30) medium, and substantial (0.30 to above). As demonstrated in Table 4, the R2 coefficient for the measures revealed a medium effect, indicating the model forecasting was accurate. The structural model explained a 26.9% variance in tele-pressure and a 33.8% variance in remote work performance. Thus, this study achieved satisfactory results for R2 and Q2.
To test hypothesis relationships, this study found that all the hypotheses were statistically significant. Table 4 and Figure 2 show these results. H1 results show that online time-spatial job crafting positively and significantly impacts remote work performance (β = 0.287, t = 5.780, p = 0.000). Therefore, H1 was accepted. Meanwhile, we tested H2, and findings show that leisure crafting positively and significantly influences remote work performance (β = 0.250, t = 4.810, p = 0.000); thus, H2 was supported. Furthermore, H3 results indicate that tele-pressure positively affects remote work performance (β = 0.204, t = 3.575, p = 0.000), and H3 was accepted. In addition, H3a findings show that tele-pressure positively mediates the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting and remote work performance (β = 0.050; t = 3.027; p < 0.002). As a result, H3a was accepted. H3b findings indicate that tele-pressure significantly mediates the relationship between leisure crafting and remote work performance (β = 0.044; t = 2.542; p < 0.011). Hence, H3b was also supported. Lastly, H4, H4a and H4b results illustrate that techno-self-efficacy has a significant effect on tele-pressure (β = 0.211; t = 4.634; p < 0.000) and it positively moderated the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting (β = −0.096; t = 2.159; p < 0.031), leisure crafting (β = 0.118; t = 2.136; p < 0.033), and remote work performance. Hence, H4, H4a and H4b were also accepted.

5. Discussion

This empirical study aims to investigate how different crafting techniques, such as time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting, can stimulate remote work performance in the presence of tele-pressure and techno-self-efficacy. This study results show that employees who engage in online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting tend to perform better at remote work as achieving goals, developing new skills, and retaining social contacts. Furthermore, it creates a sense of satisfaction.
Concerning H1, it was found that online time-spatial job crafting is positively associated with remote work performance. The workers are familiar with time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting. They can craft their job-working hours, locations, and work demands effectively and efficiently. This result is in line with a prior study [19]. Moreover, regarding H2, it was found that leisure crafting is also considered an essential and advanced crafting technique initiated by employees in non-work domains. According to [38], workers who participate in leisure crafting are goal-oriented and always seek the opportunity to learn and progress; they tend to deal with all types of challenges that make them secure in their jobs. Leisure crafting enables workers to define boundaries between demands and resources that encourage them to perform at their maximum. Furthermore, [18] mentioned that leisure crafting negatively impacts emotional exhaustion and stress, which means remote workers can overcome techno-stress through leisure crafting.
Concerning H3, H3a, and H3b, it was found that tele-pressure positively mediates the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting, leisure crafting, and remote work performance. Results supported that tele-pressure significantly impacts online time-spatial job crafting, leisure crafting, and remote work performance. The time-spatial job crafting gives flexibility in work and prevents work pressure. Existing research by [17] claimed that engaging in time-spatial job crafting facilitates online workers to attain an optimum fit between their work demands by scheduling time to work. Prior study by [68] also underlined that in a technology-driven work setup, workers face a more significant workload and have high responsiveness, which hampers the ability to revel in leisure crafting. Tele-pressure has many negative effects on workers, and work-life conflict is one effect which has adverse consequences on employee remote productivity.
Results of tests of H4 and H4a suggest that techno-self-efficacy moderates the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting and tele-pressure. Employees in Pakistan lack high-tech skills and basic proficiency, which impedes their sense of belief and lowers techno-self-efficacy. Based on the results, it can be concluded that techno-self-efficacy significantly enhances online time-spatial job crafting and mitigates tele-pressure. This study also has considered whether techno-self-efficacy moderates leisure crafting and tele-pressure by testing H4b. It is confirmed that techno-self-efficacy significantly moderates between leisure crafting and techno-stress. Techno-self-efficacy is a crucial motivator for employees to participate in activities that aim to achieve established goals, learn new required skills, and establish a connection with social groups. Additionally, ref. [47] argued that through leisure crafting, individuals experience new things and progress through different challenges to develop a sense of mastery. In remote work, expectations of rapid responsiveness and connectivity are also greater, despite the greater flexibility compared to regular work. In this scenario, a person who believes in his/her ability to draw a boundary between work and non-work free time can overcome work-demanding tele-pressure. A study found that, among university teachers, self-efficacy negatively moderates workplace tele-pressure and emotional exhaustion from dealing with undesirable emotions [69]. Lastly, concerning time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting, the results suggest that handling adverse consequences related to tele-pressure on remote work performance is impossible. However, it can be reduced in the presence of techno-self-efficacy.

Implications

The study provides some practical implications for information technology IT sector managers and policymakers. First, employees have been working from home, and remote work is a particular way of working to survive in the corporate world. This study suggests organizations should plan and implement schemes for overcoming undesirable outcomes of intense remote work, such as stress and pressure. IT sectors can take advantage of this study to consider how they can implement online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting in a remote working setting. Managers can be guided to offer employees training on crafting their workplace and time to perform remote tasks when engaged in remote working provisions. It is observed that COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns caused stress and anxiety among employees, and this study highlighted some of the main stressors and means to deal with them, which will help online communities cope with these kinds of stress and anxiety. This study suggests that policymakers make an inclusive agenda for using online and remote jobs as an opportunity to control unemployment in crucial circumstances, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

6. Limitations and Future Research Indications

This study has some limitations and offers future research directions for upcoming researchers. First, this study was based on a cross-sectional design; it is challenging to conduct a causal relationship study in a short time span. Future researchers can conduct studies by employing a longitudinal design to validate the results over a longer time. Second, this study sample size was 486, which was insufficient and did not reflect the total information technology employee population. Therefore, this study suggests future researchers conduct a study on a large sample size and validate this model in different sectors such as banking, telecommunications, and manufacturing. Third, many IT sector employees in Pakistan are unaware of the concept of remote work. Future researchers could take another predictor, e.g., emotional exhaustion and employee engagement to highlight the concept of remote working in different study settings. Fourth, this study focused on the significance of time-spatial job crafting, leisure crafting, tele-pressure, and techno-self-efficacy on remote work performance. The subjects of time management, procrastination, and technical literacy in employees are worth considering for future research.

7. Conclusions

To achieve an optimum remote working performance, workers should be incentivized to adjust the timing and demands of their job according to their work life. Involving them in time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting can increase workers’ confidence. This study is intended to investigate what effect the job crafting methods, such as online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting, have on tele-pressure and remote work performance in the IT sector of Pakistan. The results are analyzed through the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique. The findings show that online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting positively affects tele-pressure and remote work performance. This study also found that techno-self-efficacy positively moderates the relationship between online time-spatial job crafting and leisure crafting on tele-pressure.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.W. and Y.X.; methodology M.M.; software, N.I.C.; validation, M.M. and H.W.; formal analysis, N.I.C. and H.W.; investigation, M.M. and N.I.C.; resources, Y.X.; data curation, J.W. and M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, J.W., Y.X. and M.M.; writing—review, and editing, M.M., J.W. and N.I.C.; visualization, M.M.; supervision, J.W.; project administration, J.W. and Y.X.; funding acquisition, Y.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The Project Name: Zhejiang Province Philosophy and Social Science Planning project in 2022: Comparative research on support policies and development Models of Entrepreneurial universities in China, Japan and South Korea (22NDQN283YB).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 15 11936 g001
Figure 1. Conceptual model.
Figure 1. Conceptual model.
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Figure 2. Structural model.
Figure 2. Structural model.
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Table 1. Construct Reliability and Validity.
Table 1. Construct Reliability and Validity.
ConstructsItemsLoadingsCA CRAVEVIF
Online time-spatial job crafting 0.9340.9350.835
OTJR10.925 3.937
OTJR20.925 4.125
OTJR30.885 2.826
OTJR40.920 3.790
Leisure crafting 0.9290.9380.669
LECR10.767 2.186
LECR20.821 2.772
LECR30.847 3.116
LECR40.828 2.801
LECR50.782 2.117
LECR60.845 2.705
LECR70.854 2.944
LECR80.793 2.297
Remote work performance 0.9060.9090.833
REWP10.933 3.352
REWP20.919 3.053
REWP30.899 2.631
Tele-pressure 0.9260.9340.774
TEL-PR10.863 2.889
TEL-PR20.790 2.175
TEL-PR30.884 3.217
TEL-PR40.935 4.364
TEL-PR50.919 4.319
Techno-self-efficacy 0.9240.9300.768
TEC-SE10.894 3.553
TEC-SE20.912 4.064
TEC-SE30.843 2.446
TEC-SE40.853 2.518
TEC-SE50.878 3.110
Notes: OTJR = online time-spatial job crafting, LECR = leisure crafting, REWP = remote work performance, TEL-PR = tele-pressure, TEC-SE = techno-self-efficacy, CA = Cronbach’s alpha, CR = Composite reliability, AVE = Average variance extracted, VIF = Variance inflation factor.
Table 2. Discriminant Validity (Fornell-Larcker Criterion).
Table 2. Discriminant Validity (Fornell-Larcker Criterion).
LECROTJRREWPTEC-SETEL-PR
LECR0.818
OTJR0.4330.914
REWP0.4590.4780.917
TEC-SE0.3730.2430.3610.876
TEL-PR0.4140.4030.4230.3530.880
Notes: OTJR = online time-spatial job crafting, LECR = leisure crafting, REWP = remote work performance, TEL-PR = tele-pressure, TEC-SE = techno-self-efficacy.
Table 3. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT).
Table 3. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT).
ConstructsLECROTJRREWPTEC-SETEL-PR
LECR
OTJR0.461
REWP0.4940.518
TEC-SE0.4040.2620.394
TEL-PR0.4300.4300.4590.378
Notes: OTJR = online time-spatial job crafting, LECR = leisure crafting, REWP = remote work performance, TEL-PR = tele-pressure, TEC-SE = techno-self-efficacy.
Table 4. Structural model.
Table 4. Structural model.
R2
TEL-PR = 0.269
REWP = 0.338		Q2
TEL-PR = 0.214
REWP = 0.277
HypothesisRelationshipsβt p
Direct Effects
H1OTJR→REWP0.2875.7800.000
H2LECR→REWP0.2504.8100.000
-OTJR→TEL-PR0.2446.0930.000
-LECR→TEL-PR0.2184.6280.000
H3TEL-PR→REWP0.2043.5750.000
Mediating Effects
H3aOTJR→TEL-PR→REWP0.0503.0270.002
H3bLECR→TEL-PR→REWP0.0442.5420.011
Moderating Effects
H4TEC-SE→TEL-PR0.2114.6340.000
H4aTEC-SE × OTJR and TEL-PR −0.0962.1590.031
H4bTEC-SE × LECR and TEL-PR0.1182.1360.033
Significant at p < 0.05; p < 0.01. Notes: OTJR = online time-spatial job crafting, LECR = leisure crafting, REWP = remote work performance, TEL-PR = tele-pressure, TEC-SE = techno-self-efficacy.
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Wang, J.; Xiong, Y.; Murad, M.; Chaudhary, N.I.; Waqar, H. Role of Online Time-Spatial Job Crafting and Leisure Crafting on Remote Work Performance through Tele-Pressure and Techno-Self-Efficacy. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11936. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511936

AMA Style

Wang J, Xiong Y, Murad M, Chaudhary NI, Waqar H. Role of Online Time-Spatial Job Crafting and Leisure Crafting on Remote Work Performance through Tele-Pressure and Techno-Self-Efficacy. Sustainability. 2023; 15(15):11936. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511936

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Jiatong, Yong Xiong, Majid Murad, Naveed Iqbal Chaudhary, and Hira Waqar. 2023. "Role of Online Time-Spatial Job Crafting and Leisure Crafting on Remote Work Performance through Tele-Pressure and Techno-Self-Efficacy" Sustainability 15, no. 15: 11936. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511936

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