Pollution and Health Risk Assessment of Hazardous Elements in Surface Dust along an Urbanization Gradient
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Sample Collection, Preparation, and Analysis
2.3. Pollution Assessment of HEs
2.4. Health Risk Assessment of HEs
2.4.1. Exposure Analysis
2.4.2. Non-Carcinogenic Risk Assessment
2.4.3. Carcinogenic Risk Assessment
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Concentration of HEs in Surface Dust along the Urbanization Gradient
3.2. Spatial Distribution of Concentration of HEs in Surface Dust
3.3. Pollution of HEs in Surface Dust along the Urbanization Gradient
3.4. Non-Carcinogenic Risk of HEs in Surface Dust along the Urbanization Gradient
3.5. Carcinogenic Risk of HEs in Surface Dust along the Urbanization Gradient
4. Conclusions
- The average concentrations of the Hg, Cr, Ni, and Pb elements in the surface dust in all the urbanization gradients exceeded the corresponding background values. Hg was the most enriched hazardous element in the surface dust in the study area. The spatial distributions of As and Pb were similar to one another, with higher concentrations seen in the core urban and urban gradients. Higher concentrations of Hg, Cd, and Ni were observed in the core urban gradient, whereas higher concentrations of Cr were observed in the urban gradient.
- The average CF values of the Hg, Cd, and Ni in the surface dust could be ranked: core urban > urban > suburban, and the average CF of As, Cr, and Pb in the surface dust could be ranked: urban > core urban > suburban. The average PLI values of the HEs in the surface dust in the core urban, urban, and suburban gradients were 1.35, 1.29, and 1.15, respectively, with a low level of pollution. The PLI of the HEs could be ranked: core urban > urban > suburban.
- The HI values of the HEs in the surface dust in the core urban, urban, and suburban gradients were 0.910, 0.956, and 0.839 for children, respectively, compared to 0.158, 0.166, and 0.146 for adults, respectively. Meanwhile, the TCR values of the carcinogenic HEs in the surface dust in the core urban, urban, and suburban gradients were 3.77 × 10−5, 3.94 × 10−5, and 3.59 × 10−5 for children, respectively, compared to 3.10 × 10−5, 3.24 × 10−5, and 2.95 × 10−5 for adults, respectively. The HI and TCR values of the HEs for adults and children can be ranked: urban > core urban > suburban. The potential non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks of the investigated HEs, instigated primarily through the oral ingestion of surface dust, were found to be within the acceptable range. Finally, Cr was the main non-carcinogenic risk factor, while Cd was the main carcinogenic risk factor among the analyzed HEs in the surface dust in all the urbanization gradients.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Meaning and Units | Children | Adult |
---|---|---|---|
IngR | Consumption rate of dusts (mg/d) | 200 | 100 |
InhR | Dust inhalation rate (m3/d) | 7.5 | 16.2 |
CF | Unit conversion factor (kg/mg) | 1 × 10−6 | 1 × 10−6 |
EF | Exposure frequency (d/a) | 350 | 350 |
ED | Exposure duration (year) | 6 | 30 |
SA | Exposed skin area (cm2) | 899 | 1600 |
AF | Skin adherence factor (mg/(cm2/d)) | 0.20 | 0.07 |
PEF | Particulate emission factor (m3/kg) | 1.36 × 109 | 1.36 × 109 |
BW | Average body weight (kg) | 21.2 | 62.4 |
ATnc | Average exposure time for non-cancer (d) | 365 × ED | 365 × ED |
ATca | Average exposure time for cancer (d) | 365 × 70 | 365 × 70 |
ABS | Dermal absorption factor (unitless) | Hg = Cr = Ni = Pb = 0.01; As = 0.03; Cd = 0.005 |
Elements | RfD/(mg/kg/d) | SF/(mg/kg/d) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ingestion | Inhalation | Dermal | Ingestion | Inhalation | Dermal | |
Pb | 0.0035 | 0.00352 | 0.000525 | / | / | / |
Ni | 0.020 | 0.0206 | 0.0054 | / | 0.84 | / |
As | 0.0003 | 0.000123 | 0.0003 | 1.50 | 0.0043 | 1.50 |
Cd | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.00001 | / | 6.30 | / |
Hg | 0.0003 | 0.0003 | 0.000024 | / | / | / |
Cr | 0.003 | 0.0000286 | 0.00006 | 0.50 | 42.0 | / |
Gradient | Statistics | As | Hg | Cd | Cr | Ni | Pb |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Core urban (n = 21) | Minimum/(mg/kg) | 5.30 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 50.07 | 21.61 | 16.00 |
Maximum/(mg/kg) | 14.20 | 0.55 | 0.50 | 81.08 | 74.94 | 56.30 | |
Average/(mg/kg) | 9.14 | 0.18 | 0.24 | 63.83 | 36.95 | 36.61 | |
St.D/(mg/kg) | 2.42 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 7.91 | 13.22 | 11.09 | |
CV | 0.26 | 0.61 | 0.50 | 0.12 | 0.36 | 0.30 | |
Urban (n = 13) | Minimum/(mg/kg) | 5.00 | 0.07 | 0.12 | 45.01 | 27.34 | 18.80 |
Maximum/(mg/kg) | 15.90 | 0.29 | 0.36 | 94.38 | 47.43 | 146.00 | |
Average/(mg/kg) | 9.96 | 0.14 | 0.21 | 65.52 | 32.99 | 40.28 | |
St.D/(mg/kg) | 3.05 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 12.66 | 6.58 | 31.23 | |
CV | 0.31 | 0.50 | 0.29 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.78 | |
Suburban (n = 7) | Minimum/(mg/kg) | 8.00 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 48.01 | 18.20 | 19.20 |
Maximum/(mg/kg) | 9.60 | 0.25 | 0.35 | 74.97 | 39.04 | 44.00 | |
Average/(mg/kg) | 8.61 | 0.13 | 0.19 | 61.13 | 31.39 | 27.11 | |
St.D/(mg/kg) | 0.48 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 9.10 | 6.73 | 7.59 | |
CV | 0.06 | 0.46 | 0.47 | 0.15 | 0.21 | 0.28 | |
Background value * | 9.99 | 0.076 | 0.23 | 53.20 | 29.90 | 14.10 |
Gradient | Statistics | CF | PLI | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
As | Hg | Cd | Cr | Ni | Pb | |||
Core urban (n = 21) | Minimum | 0.53 | 0.95 | 0.41 | 0.94 | 0.72 | 1.13 | 0.94 |
Maximum | 1.42 | 7.24 | 2.17 | 1.52 | 2.51 | 3.99 | 1.97 | |
Average | 0.91 | 2.34 | 1.02 | 1.20 | 1.24 | 2.60 | 1.35 | |
Urban (n = 13) | Minimum | 0.50 | 0.93 | 0.52 | 0.85 | 0.91 | 1.33 | 1.04 |
Maximum | 1.59 | 3.82 | 1.57 | 1.77 | 1.59 | 10.35 | 1.61 | |
Average | 1.00 | 1.89 | 0.90 | 1.23 | 1.10 | 2.86 | 1.29 | |
Suburban (n = 7) | Minimum | 0.80 | 0.97 | 0.37 | 0.90 | 0.61 | 1.36 | 0.87 |
Maximum | 0.96 | 3.29 | 1.52 | 1.41 | 1.31 | 3.12 | 1.56 | |
Average | 0.86 | 1.73 | 0.80 | 1.15 | 1.05 | 1.92 | 1.15 |
Gradient | Metal | HQingest | HQinhale | HQdermal | HQ | HI | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Children | Adults | Children | Adults | Children | Adults | Children | Adults | Children | Adults | ||
Core urban | As | 2.91 × 10−1 | 4.68 × 10−2 | 1.96 × 10−5 | 1.36 × 10−5 | 2.62 × 10−3 | 5.24 × 10−4 | 2.94 × 10−1 | 4.73 × 10−2 | 0.910 | 0.158 |
Hg | 5.66 × 10−3 | 9.10 × 10−4 | 1.56 × 10−7 | 1.08 × 10−7 | 6.36 × 10−4 | 1.27 × 10−4 | 6.29 × 10−3 | 1.04 × 10−3 | |||
Cd | 2.25 × 10−3 | 3.62 × 10−4 | 6.20 × 10−8 | 4.31 × 10−8 | 6.06 × 10−3 | 1.22 × 10−3 | 8.31 × 10−3 | 1.58 × 10−3 | |||
Cr | 2.03 × 10−1 | 3.27 × 10−2 | 5.88 × 10−4 | 4.09 × 10−4 | 2.74 × 10−1 | 5.49 × 10−2 | 4.78 × 10−1 | 8.80 × 10−2 | |||
Ni | 1.76 × 10−2 | 2.84 × 10−3 | 4.72 × 10−7 | 3.28 × 10−7 | 5.88 × 10−4 | 1.18 × 10−4 | 1.82 × 10−2 | 2.96 × 10−3 | |||
Pb | 9.99 × 10−2 | 1.61 × 10−2 | 2.74 × 10−6 | 1.90 × 10−6 | 5.99 × 10−3 | 1.20 × 10−3 | 1.06 × 10−1 | 1.73 × 10−2 | |||
Urban | As | 3.17 × 10−1 | 5.10 × 10−2 | 2.13 × 10−5 | 1.48 × 10−5 | 2.85 × 10−3 | 5.71 × 10−4 | 3.20 × 10−1 | 5.16 × 10−2 | 0.956 | 0.166 |
Hg | 4.58 × 10−3 | 7.37 × 10−4 | 1.26 × 10−7 | 8.78 × 10−8 | 5.15 × 10−4 | 1.03 × 10−4 | 5.09 × 10−3 | 8.40 × 10−4 | |||
Cd | 1.98 × 10−3 | 3.19 × 10−4 | 5.47 × 10−8 | 3.80 × 10−8 | 5.35 × 10−3 | 1.07 × 10−3 | 7.33 × 10−3 | 1.39 × 10−3 | |||
Cr | 2.09 × 10−1 | 3.36 × 10−2 | 6.03 × 10−4 | 4.19 × 10−4 | 2.81 × 10−1 | 5.64 × 10−2 | 4.90 × 10−1 | 9.04 × 10−2 | |||
Ni | 1.58 × 10−2 | 2.53 × 10−3 | 4.22 × 10−7 | 2.93 × 10−7 | 5.25 × 10−4 | 1.05 × 10−4 | 1.63 × 10−2 | 2.64 × 10−3 | |||
Pb | 1.10 × 10−1 | 1.77 × 10−2 | 3.01 × 10−6 | 2.09 × 10−6 | 6.59 × 10−3 | 1.32 × 10−3 | 1.17 × 10−1 | 1.90 × 10−2 | |||
Suburban | As | 2.74 × 10−1 | 4.41 × 10−2 | 1.84 × 10−5 | 1.28 × 10−5 | 2.47 × 10−3 | 4.94 × 10−4 | 2.77 × 10−1 | 4.46 × 10−2 | 0.839 | 0.146 |
Hg | 4.18 × 10−3 | 6.72 × 10−4 | 1.15 × 10−8 | 8.00 × 10−8 | 4.69 × 10−4 | 9.40 × 10−5 | 4.64 × 10−3 | 7.66 × 10−4 | |||
Cd | 1.77 × 10−3 | 2.84 × 10−4 | 4.87 × 10−8 | 3.39 × 10−8 | 4.77 × 10−3 | 9.55 × 10−4 | 6.53 × 10−3 | 1.24 × 10−3 | |||
Cr | 1.95 × 10−1 | 3.13 × 10−2 | 5.63 × 10−4 | 3.91 × 10−4 | 2.62 × 10−1 | 5.26 × 10−2 | 4.58 × 10−1 | 8.43 × 10−2 | |||
Ni | 1.50 × 10−2 | 2.41 × 10−3 | 4.01 × 10−7 | 2.79 × 10−7 | 4.99 × 10−4 | 1.00 × 10−4 | 1.55 × 10−2 | 2.51 × 10−3 | |||
Pb | 7.40 × 10−2 | 1.19 × 10−2 | 2.03 × 10−6 | 1.41 × 10−6 | 4.43 × 10−3 | 8.89 × 10−4 | 7.84 × 10−2 | 1.28 × 10−2 |
Gradient | Metal | CRingest | CRinhale | CRdermal | CR | TCR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Children | Adults | Children | Adults | Children | Adults | Children | Adults | Children | Adults | ||
Core urban | As | 1.12 × 10−5 | 9.03 × 10−6 | 8.87 × 10−13 | 3.08 × 10−12 | 3.03 × 10−7 | 7.08 × 10−7 | 1.15 × 10−5 | 9.74 × 10−6 | 3.77 × 10−5 | 3.10 × 10−5 |
Cd | / | / | 3.35 × 10−11 | 1.16 × 10−10 | / | / | 2.62 × 10−5 | 2.12 × 10−5 | |||
Cr | 2.61 × 10−5 | 2.10 × 10−5 | 6.05 × 10−8 | 2.10 × 10−7 | / | / | 3.35 × 10−11 | 1.16 × 10−10 | |||
Ni | / | / | 7.01 × 10−10 | 2.43 × 10−9 | / | / | 7.01 × 10−10 | 2.43 × 10−9 | |||
Urban | As | 1.22 × 10−5 | 9.84 × 10−6 | 9.67 × 10−13 | 3.36 × 10−12 | 3.30 × 10−7 | 7.72 × 10−7 | 1.26 × 10−5 | 1.06 × 10−5 | 3.94 × 10−5 | 3.24 × 10−5 |
Cd | / | / | 2.95 × 10−11 | 1.03 × 10−10 | / | / | 2.69 × 10−5 | 2.18 × 10−5 | |||
Cr | 2.68 × 10−5 | 2.16 × 10−5 | 6.21 × 10−8 | 2.16 × 10−7 | / | / | 2.95 × 10−11 | 1.03 × 10−10 | |||
Ni | / | / | 6.26 × 10−10 | 2.17 × 10−9 | / | / | 6.26 × 10−10 | 2.17 × 10−9 | |||
Suburban | As | 1.06 × 10−5 | 8.51 × 10−6 | 8.36 × 10−13 | 2.91 × 10−12 | 2.85 × 10−7 | 6.67 × 10−7 | 1.09 × 10−5 | 9.18 × 10−6 | 3.59 × 10−5 | 2.95 × 10−5 |
Cd | / | / | 2.63 × 10−11 | 9.14 × 10−11 | / | / | 2.51 × 10−5 | 2.03 × 10−5 | |||
Cr | 2.50 × 10−5 | 2.01 × 10−5 | 5.80 × 10−8 | 2.01 × 10−7 | / | / | 2.63 × 10−11 | 9.14 × 10−11 | |||
Ni | / | / | 5.95 × 10−10 | 2.07 × 10−9 | / | / | 5.95 × 10−10 | 2.07 × 10−9 |
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Kavsar, N.; Eziz, M.; Sidikjan, N. Pollution and Health Risk Assessment of Hazardous Elements in Surface Dust along an Urbanization Gradient. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11842. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511842
Kavsar N, Eziz M, Sidikjan N. Pollution and Health Risk Assessment of Hazardous Elements in Surface Dust along an Urbanization Gradient. Sustainability. 2023; 15(15):11842. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511842
Chicago/Turabian StyleKavsar, Nargiza, Mamattursun Eziz, and Nazupar Sidikjan. 2023. "Pollution and Health Risk Assessment of Hazardous Elements in Surface Dust along an Urbanization Gradient" Sustainability 15, no. 15: 11842. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511842