Structural Relationship between Ecotourism Motivation, Satisfaction, Place Attachment, and Environmentally Responsible Behavior Intention in Nature-Based Camping

Abstract

This study aims to make an investigation on the relationship between ecotourism motivation (EM), satisfaction (SA), place attachment (PA), and environmentally responsible behavior intention (ER) based on the analysis of camping tourism andstudy the mediating roles of SA and PA in the relationship between EM and ER. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted on 400 camping tourists who visited the Yunnan Province of China within the last year. The distribution of survey questionnaires range from 12 February 2023–24 February 2023. The results reveal that EM positively influences SA, PA, and ER, whereas, although SA positively impacts PA, it does not significantly affect ER. In contrast, PA positively affects ER. Furthermore, PA has a positive mediating impact on the relationship between EM and ER, whereas, SA does not significantly mediate this relationship. Finally, SA and PA act as chain mediators between EM and ER. The findings contribute to the tourism literature by shedding light on the complex relationships between EM, SA, PA, and ER in the context of camping tourism, thereby, enhancing tourist satisfaction and promoting environmentally responsible behavior, thus, contributing to the growth of a sustainable camping industry.

1. Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic, announced by the World Health Organization on 12 March 2020, affected every aspect of our lives [1], including education [2], mental health [3], and tourism [4], among which tourism and leisure is the most affected industry [5,6]. Consequently, multiple links in tourism supply and demand have either collapsed or been reconfigured [7,8], leading to a huge decline in tourism demand and a severe global crisis in the tourism industry [9]. However, camps have shown resilience to the effects of COVID-19, and adaptation measures during the pandemic have resulted in a bounceback in the camping industry, causing it to be more active than usual [10].

Camping is a nature-based form of tourism that involves spending one or more nights in an outdoor setting where individuals may be exposed to natural elements such as weather extremes [11]. It encompasses activities, occurring in natural environments, away from home. During the pandemic, nature-based tourism and entertainment projects such as camps, have witnessed great improvement compared to more traditional forms, such as staying in hotels [12]. Tourists have adapted to outdoor recreation and social distancing as part of the new routine [13], leading them to feel safer and more comfortable in environments with fewer social interactions [14]. Interestingly, some studies have suggested that spatial proximity or distance does not influence them to choose camping as a form of leisure [15]. In fact, leisure travelers residing in areas with a high pandemic incidence are willing to travel to engage in camping activities [16].

Camping is a crucial aspect of nature-based tourism, significantly contributing to domestic tourism because of the appeal of natural beauty and nature-based amenities. However, to maintain a sustainable natural environment and prevent environmental harm, campers must comply with local laws and regulations, and exhibit responsible behavior towards the natural environment. Factors such as environmentally responsible behavior intention (ER), ecotourism motivation (EM), and governance of nature-based tourism destinations can influence the sustainability of such kind of tourism [17]. Although campgrounds may not threaten the ecological integrity of an entire area, they may still have a considerable impact on local resources and the quality of tourist experiences. Nature-based tourism operators and protected area managers have put more effort into researching the institution and supervision of nature-based destinations, owing to the rapid growth of such kinds of tourism. However, a dearth of research on the factors affecting ER of nature-based campers emerges.

Camping tourism has gained immense popularity in China, especially among families, owing to the love for nature. To keep its rich biodiversity, China has built up more than 2000 natural parks and reserves, including 428 national nature reserves covering almost 10% of its total area, making them ideal camping destinations, leading to a significant increase in nature-based tourism. The 2019 COVID-19 pandemic further promoted the growth of camps, making them a popular choice for outdoor activities.

According to a research report by iiMedia Research (Chinese Global Industry Research Database: https://data.iimedia.cn/ (accessed on 1 March 2023)), the market scale of China’s camping industry has grown from 7.71 billion yuan (1.12 billion dollars) to 29.9 billion yuan (4.34 billion dollars) between 2014 and 2021 and is expected to continue growing, with an estimated growth rate of 18.6%, reaching 35.46 billion yuan (5.15 billion dollars) by 2022, thereby, making it is crucial to study the factors influencing camping tourism in China to maintain its growth and momentum.

Tourists’ ER is influenced by their EM, which refers to engaging in and drawing lessons from nature, self-developing, running away from their routine for freshness, and being involved with social interaction. Ecotourists are usually associated with nature tourism and called “green tourists”. Ecotourism essentially targets activities to be conducted in natural circumstances, inspired by a firm commitment to protect it [18]. Ma et al. [19] found that both intrinsic and extrinsic travel motivations were equally important to travelers and significantly associated with their environmental attitudes and responsible behavior. Other environmental behavior studies have suggested that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to ER, which provides a sense of achievement, pleasure, and success without tangible or extrinsic rewards [20]. However, research on the effects of ecotourism motivation on tourists’ environmental attitudes and responsible behavior in nature-based tourism is limited.

In terms of travel, satisfaction (SA) is measured based on tourists’ pre-travel expectations and actual experiences, resulting in positive feelings towards the destination during or after the trip [21]. Studies have shown that tourists are more likely to exhibit pro-environmental behavior when satisfied with their environment [22]. However, there is limited research on the pro-environmental behavior or ER and the relationship between tourists’ SA in natural settings. Ramkissoon et al. [23] are among the few researchers who have explored this relationship.

Place attachment (PA) means the emotional connections people form with physical settings [24]. Low and Altman [25] have suggested that PA encompasses concepts from various aspects such as place identity and dependence. Ramkissoon et al. [26] highlighted the connection between PA and tourists’ pro-environmental intentions and actions, demonstrating its significance in explaining such behavior across different settings. For instance, Chow et al. [27] have shown that place dependence and identity positively correlate with ER. However, some Western studies [23,28] show that place dependence is not a meaningful indicator of ER. The causal relationships between tourism motivation and EM, SA, and PA have been verified in numerous studies. Push and pull motivations in general and tourism motivations, in particular, have been defined as antecedents of tourist SA [29]. Tourism motivation has a great positive connection with SA [30], and has an impact on their attachment levels in a specific setting [31]. Kyle et al. [28] found that motivations such as nature, learning activities, health, autonomy, and socialization positively affect PA dimensions such as identity and place dependence and social bonding. Hosany et al. [32] demonstrated that motivation and PA are key determinants of the motivation to go for individuals with stronger imagination proclivity. Several prior studies have proved that tourists’ SA is a suitable mediating element in behavioral models of tourism [33,34]. However, the exploration of the mediating roles of SA and PA in EM and ER is limited.

SA and PA are key factors in the sustainability of ecotourism, including natural tourist attractions. Xu and Zhang [31] conceptualized satisfaction as an antecedent. However, according to Prayag and Ryan [35], PA, by definition, is an outcome. They proved that place identity and dependence, which is the two dimensions of PA, had a positive influence on the overall SA of international tourists to Mauritius. Place dependence also contributes to satisfactory leisure experiences [36]. Understanding the ER of nature-based tourists is essential for ensuring the sustainability of campsite environments. Many researches have been conducted to interpret the environmental attitudes and actions of nature-based tourists, but research relating to their ER is limited. In particular, few studies have been conducted on Chinese campers. Traditional Chinese culture may cause them to have different attitudes towards environmental responsibility than Western tourists. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of the EM, SA, and PA of Chinese nature-based tourists, especially the factors influencing ER, is crucial for the development of recommended open-air tourism and the realization of China’s sustainable development goals.

Consequently, the purpose of this study is to establish an ecotourism structure model for camping tourists in the Yunnan Province and combine SA and PA to examine ER among them.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1. Nature-Based Camping

Nature-based camping is an increasingly important aspect of the tourism industry, as it offers accommodation and entertainment centered around nature. This type of tourism is popular among those who appreciate nature and seek to spend one or more nights in temporary shelters on campgrounds. As Eagles [37] notes, tourists who opt for nature-based camps typically have similar expectations and requirements, primarily driven by their love of nature. In recent years, particularly during the pandemic, the popularity of nature-based camps has grown significantly, boosting the global economy [38]. According to prior research, nature-based camps can promote conservation and sustainability by raising awareness about the importance of protecting the natural environment [39].

Nature-based camps provide an ideal platform for environmental education, as they allow tourists to learn about the natural environment and conservation while participating in outdoor activities and interacting with the natural world [40]. Such experiences can deepen tourists’ understanding and appreciation of the environment, increase their environmental knowledge and awareness, and motivate them to take action to protect it. Furthermore, nature-based camps can promote sustainable practices, such as reducing waste and minimizing the impact on the environment, further supporting conservation efforts [41].

Tourism industry professionals should develop a range of programs for environmentally responsible nature-based camps, which could contribute to the preservation of the natural environment, while simultaneously responding to the increasing demand for nature-based tourism experiences.

2.2. Ecotourism Motivation

Ecotourism attracts tourists because it provides them with an opportunity to understand the ecosystem, participate in natural resource conservation, and engage in interesting activities, stimulating their motivation to travel [42]. EM is related to the psychological need for tourism activities that promote and support ecological conservation, sustainability, and appreciation of the natural environment. Fennell [43] highlighted the importance of EM as a driver of sustainable tourism development, which can have positive consequences for both tourists and host communities. According to Carvache et al. [44], tourism motivation is a psychological need that affects various factors related to tourist participation, including achieving a state of physical and mental relaxation.

This need is one of the most important factors in tourism decision-making [45]. The primary motives of ecotourism tourists include becoming closer to nature, improving their physical fitness, and meeting like-minded people [46,47]. Ma et al. [48] found that the most significant motivation for Chinese ecotourism tourists is relaxing and exploring nature, whereas, Lee et al. [49] discovered that those that are Korean are motivated by self-development, interpersonal relationships, rewards, establishing connections, avoidance, self-defense functions, and nature appreciation.

2.3. Ecotourism Motivation and Satisfaction

Motivation, a major variable that explains why certain actions occur, has been studied extensively to explain why individuals engage in tourism activities [50,51]. The motivation of tourists to observe natural features, appreciate relevant cultural assets, come into contact with nature, exercise their bodies, and engage in related social activities is called EM [46,52]. Holden and Sparrowhawk [46] highlight that ecotourists’ primary motivations are to gain knowledge about nature, engage in physical activities, and connect with like-minded people. Lee et al. [49] identified seven motivation-related factors: self-development, interpersonal relationships, rewards, establishing personal connections, avoidance, self-defense functions, and nature appreciation. Tourist motivation is a critical factor, driving personal desires and needs, explaining why tourists seek distinct interests. Furthermore, this factor plays a crucial role in deciding a particular tourism destination.

The increasing number of tourists is a result of ecotourism development. Therefore, it is important that tourists regard the authenticity of an area as a necessary condition for meeting their expectations of natural places [53]. It is necessary to determine the motivations of different types of tourists for visiting ecological areas. Compared to other types of tourists, ecotourists not only prefer ecological areas but are also frequent and loyal visitors, which encourages future actions of repeated staying [54]. Tourist SA is an important factor that cannot be ignored [55]. The motivation of tourists determines the benchmark of their SA, which includes the quality of tourist attractions, as well as, its service quality [56]. According to Higham et al. [57], tourists are likely to perceive their experiences as satisfactory if their motivations are fulfilled. One crucial aspect considered essential by tourists for SA is encountering animals, plants, and natural surroundings, as emphasized by Curtin [58]. Failure to meet these expectations leads to dissatisfaction, which can have both short- and long-term effects [56]. Moreover, EM is a critical variable influencing tourist SA, as demonstrated in previous studies [56,59]. On the other hand, there are many motivations for being compelled to engage in ER in order to avoid punishment related to environmental policies; therefore, EM may not have a positive impact on ER [60]. Consequently, this study will analyze and demonstrate, based on previous research perspectives and the actual survey results of this study.

Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1.

EM will influence SA.

2.4. Ecotourism Motivation and Place Attachment

Motivation typically represents the pursuit of personal interests and people driven by different motives may develop varying psychological, social, and physiological outcomes, leading to different levels of attachment to the environment. For example, EM is driven by motives such as relaxation and exploration of nature, self-development, and interpersonal relationships; therefore, it plays a vital role in creating PA, while significantly correlating to it [28]. Prayag and Lee [61] confirmed the relationship between motivation and PA, suggesting that the latter can be considered a motive to visit tourist destinations. Additionally, several studies have found a significant association between motivational factors and PA [31,62,63] with a significant positive relationship existing between the two [64]. Motivation (e.g., exploring nature) can significantly predict [65], as well as, positively impact PA [35]. The motivation to engage in nature-based tourism can also influence location attachment [66].

Studies on PA have been conducted focusing on single-dimensional or multi-dimensional components, depending on the subject of study and the characteristics of the place. As a single-dimensional approach, researchers have expressed the degree of attachment to the place of residence or visit and overall PA [67,68]. However, PA is a complex construct that involves a variety of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. Measuring PA as a single dimension poses problems as it overlooks the multifaceted nature of people’s experiences and oversimplifies the concept. Moreover, single-dimensional measures may have limited predictive power in explaining and understanding individual behaviors and attitudes toward a place. However, many researchers largely agree that place attachment is a multidimensional concept [69,70] and consists of two dimensions: place identity and place dependence.

As motivation such as the ability to explore nature and engage in natural tourism are considered important factors in EM [52,66], we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2.

EM will influence PA.

2.5. Ecotourism Motivation and Environmentally Responsible Behavior Intention

Tourists’ ER protects the natural environment, reduces interference with the local surroundings, increases voluntary visits to small destinations that require restoration, and reduces damage to particular destinations, all of which aim to avoid environmental harm [71]. This behavior is also referred to as pro-environmental, environmentally friendly, or green behavior [72,73]. Tourists’ EM factors, which seek closeness to nature, significantly influence ER. The formation of this kind of motivation depends mainly on positive and consistent environmental values and attitudes [74]. Studies have confirmed that tourists’ ER is influenced by their environmental attitudes and motivation to be close to nature [75], especially, in the context of sustainable tourism. [76] argue that choosing to self-recover in nature is a positive motivation for travelers and individuals with this trait are more likely to engage in ecological behavior.

Several studies have identified EM as a critical predictor of tourists’ ER [77], positively influencing it [78,79,80].

Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3.

EM will influence ER.

2.6. Satisfaction and Place Attachment

According to Stedman [81], SA is a complex assessment of a place’s perceived value, determined by tourists’ perceptions of its physical and social characteristics. Tourists feel satisfied when they have a positive experience but become dissatisfied with one that is negative [82]. Satisfaction has been extensively studied as an outcome associated with service quality, expectations, perceptions, motivation, and PA [83,84]. Visitors’ SA is widely believed to be a key determinant of their PA, in terms of their consumption of tourism products and choice of destination [85], as well as, their societal and political support [86].

Furthermore, a satisfying tourism experience often leads to loyalty, with some studies identifying it as a predictor of behavioral constructs such as PA [87,88].

One point of contention regarding the causal relationship between SA and PA is the directionality of the relationship. While some studies support the notion that SA precedes PA, suggesting that SA acts as a precursor to developing an attachment to a place, others propose the reverse causal direction. Firstly, the research suggests that SA has a positive impact on PA [89,90,91,92]. This means that higher SA with various aspects of tourism, such as camping, leads to a stronger PA. When individuals feel satisfied with their camping experience, they are more likely to develop an emotional connection and a sense of belonging to the place. Secondly, studies have shown that PA has a positive effect on SA [35,93]. When individuals have a stronger PA, their overall SA with the camping experience increases. This implies that a deep emotional connection and bond with a place contribute to higher levels of SA. To establish a clearer understanding of the causal relationship between these variables, further research should be conducted. The directionality of the relationship between the two variables remains an important area of debate and a variety of studies are needed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the causal dynamics between satisfaction and place attachment. Based on the first point of view, we set up the following hypotheses.

Hypothesis 4.

SA will influence PA.

2.7. Satisfaction and Environmentally Responsible Behavioral Intention

Tourist SA is a key factor in determining the willingness to revisit a destination and recommend it to others [94], indicating its importance in promoting future tourism. Additionally, tourists’ responsible behavior towards the environment is critical for ensuring the availability of tourism resources [95,96]. Lee and Moscardo [97] suggest that tourists’ SA with their experiences at their destinations can lead to more environmentally friendly behaviors. Chiu et al. [98] argue that positive tourism experiences can enhance tourist SA, triggering emotions for active participation in environmental behavior; in short, when positive feelings are generated during traveling, knowledge about the environment increases, eventually triggering responsible ER. Consistent with the study by Handriana and Ambara [99], that SA has a positive and significant impact on ER, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 5.

SA will influence ER.

2.8. Place Attachment and Environmentally Responsible Behavior Intention

PA and ER are two important tourism constructs. The former refers to the emotional bond between an individual and the environment, whereas the latter, to an individual’s willingness to engage in environmentally responsible behavior. Previous research has suggested that PA can influence ER in the tourism context [23,100,101,102].

Several studies have shown that PA positively affects tourists’ ER. For instance, Lee and Mjelde [101] found that tourists who are more attached to their destination are more likely to engage in environmentally responsible actions such as reducing water and energy use and supporting local businesses. Ramkissoon et al. [23] found that PA is an important factor in predicting tourists’ eco-friendly behavior.

Zhang and Deng [102] reported a significant positive relationship between PA and ER among tourists visiting Jiuzhaigou Valley scenic spots in China. Specifically, tourists with a high level of PA towards their destination are more likely to engage in ER during their visit, such as disposing of garbage properly, using public instead of personal transport, and conserving water and energy.

Several studies have suggested that PA can indirectly affect ER by influencing other factors such as the environment and attitudes pertaining to it. For instance, Poria et al. [103] found that PA can affect environmental attitudes, which predict tourists’ ER. As the aforementioned studies imply that PA plays a crucial role in promoting tourists’ ER, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 6.

PA will influence ER.

3. Method

3.1. Sample

In our study, we focused on tourists who had recently camped either in forests or mountains, traveling more than 75 miles (120.701 km) from their residences to camping areas. The sample included adults over the age of 18 years, who visited camps in the Yunnan Province. Four tourist attractions in the Yunnan Province, Shangri-La, Dali, Shilin, and Xishuangbanna, were selected as the sites to conduct our questionnaire surveys. These scenic spots have unique ecological and geological characteristics. For instance, Shangri-La Meili Snow Mountain is a region having rich biodiversity, Cangshan World Geo Park in Dali has a unique geological heritage landscape, Shilin Scenic Spot is known for karst geological and geomorphic landscapes and Xishuangbanna has the largest botanical garden in China with more than 2000 varieties of plants.

The best camping spot in Kunming is Long Lake in Shilin, located 18 km southeast of Shilin County and approximately 120 km from Kunming City. This campsite is well-established and offers convenient amenities such as toilets, stone tables and chairs, and running water available at regular intervals [104]. Tents can be brought or rented on-site. The area is rich in natural beauty, with abundant water birds, nested islands, interconnected lakes, and opportunities for bamboo rafting. Additionally, camping is also available at the foot of Cangshan Mountain beside Erhai Lake [105].

We conducted an online survey because face-to-face surveys are not safe during the coronavirus pandemic. However, to ensure the validity of the data, we carefully selected research subjects by reaching out to the community of individuals who had actually visited the selected campgrounds. Furthermore, the survey was specifically targeted towards individuals who had camped at these campgrounds within the last year. This study design was implemented to minimize the potential impact of respondents’ distant camping experiences on the results.

The questionnaire included a consent form and only those who agreed to participate and had camped in forests or mountains were included. The distribution of survey questionnaires ranges from 12 February 2023–24 February 2023. As 100 questionnaires were distributed in each of the four selected regions, we procured our data from 400 questionnaires.

3.2. Instrument

The study analyzed the data using SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 26.0. The study evaluates dimensions and measurement characteristics through testing CFA and structural model and verifies the convergence effectiveness and reliability of the model [106]. Data were collected on the demographic characteristics of the tourists, as well as, EM, SA, PA, and ER. The questionnaire was developed based on the content and nature of the study. The measurement tools used in this study are listed in

Table 1. CFA results for measurement model.

Dimension	λ	α	CR	AVE	Skewness	Kurtosis
Ecotourism Motivation (EM)		0.922	0.931	0.662	−0.680	0.146
Self-development (SD)	0.782	0.855	0.848	0.533	−0.567	−0.273
1: To have a chance to get to know myself better.	0.885
2: To gain a new perspective in life.	0.830
3: To gain a sense of self-confidence.	0.756
4: To understand more about myself.	0.606
5: To find my destiny.	0.632
Ego-defensive Function (ED)	0.896	0.798	0.796	0.567	−0.560	−0.308
6: To follow current events.	0.797
7: To meet new people.	0.828
8: To join people’s interest.	0.652
Escape (ES)	0.597	0.845	0.817	0.599	−0.707	0.087
9: To escape routine.	0.761
10: To get away from crowds of people.	0.817
11: To avoid interpersonal stress.	0.834
Nature (NA)	0.694	0.845	0.848	0.651	−0.760	0.040
12: To better appreciate nature.	0.831
13: To be close to nature.	0.777
14: To learn about nature.	0.802
Building Personal Relationships (BP)	0.880	0.749	0.722	0.565	−0.495	−0.400
15: To meet the locals.	0.795
16: To be with others if I need them.	0.753
Interpersonal Relationships (IR)	0.714	0.784	0.770	0.533	−0.656	−0.220
17: To strengthen relationships with my family.	0.602
18: To reflect on past memories.	0.884
19: To reminisce about my parents’ times.	0.764
Rewards (RE)	0.617	0.835	0.821	0.696	−0.785	−0.070
20: To explore the unknown.	0.807
21: To experience new things.	0.89
Satisfaction (SA)		0.739	0.788	0.554	−0.614	−0.198
22: In comparison with other similar camping places I’ve visited before, It is a much better destination for tourism and leisure.	0.736
23: My choice to make this tourism is a wise one.	0.654
24: This tourism experience is well worth my time and effort.	0.697
Place Attachment (PA)		0.808	0.810	0.683	−0.725	0.515
Place Identity (PI)	0.785	0.727	0.764	0.520	−0.654	−0.103
25: I feel the tourism destination is a part of me.	0.716
26: The tourism destination is very special to me.	0.7
27: I identify strongly with the tourism destination.	0.651
Place Dependence (PD)	0.631	0.834	0.851	0.589	−0.743	−0.082
28: No other place compares to this tourism destination.	0.712
29: I get more satisfaction out of visiting this tourism destination than any other place.	0.746
30: Doing what I do at this tourism destination is more important to me than doing it at any other place.	0.777
31: I wouldn’t substitute any other place for doing the types of things I do at this tourism destination.	0.753
Environmentally Responsible Behavioral Intention (ER)		0.756	0.814	0.525	−0.804	0.317
32: I stay on marked paths designated by the park and do not enter restricted areas in the camping site.	0.586
33: I took all garbage with myself from the camping site.	0.715
34: I try to lower my voice during staying in the camping site.	0.762
35: I intend to revisit this camping site again.	0.612

.

We have verified if the variance of the variable is greater than zero. A variable with zero variance implies that it lacks meaningful information for analysis. The variables displayed variances ranging from 0.429 to 0.962, all of which were greater than zero. Skewness and Kurtosis were examined to assess the adequacy of the normal distribution assumption. Skewness provides information about the direction and magnitude of deviation from a symmetrical distribution, while Kurtosis indicates the extent to which the distribution deviates from the normal bell shape by exhibiting more or less extreme tails. According to Hong et al. [107], standards for a normal distribution are defined as Skewness < 2 and kurtosis < 4. All variables measured in this study exhibited a Skewness value of 2 or less and a Kurtosis value of 4 or less. This indicates that the survey data meets the assumption of a normal distribution.

Reliability and convergence effectiveness were evaluated as part of data measurement. Reliability was assessed using CR and Cronbach’s alpha, with a minimum threshold of 0.7, as suggested by Nadlifatin et al. [108]. Additionally, a minimum factor loading value of 0.7 was required for the use of CR. When the average variance extracted (AVE) > 0.50, the items in all measurement models are statistically significant [109].

As shown in Table 1, CR, Cronbach’s alpha, and AVE values ranged from 0.722 to 0.931, 0.727 to 0.922, and 0.520 to 0.696, respectively, meeting the data standards, thereby, indicating that the model has adequate reliability and convergence.

3.2.1. Demographic Characteristics

The study’s demographic characteristics included age, gender, educational level, occupation, income level, frequency of camping trips per year, and preferences. The age of the participants ranged from 18 to more than 60 years. On the basis of educational level, participants were divided into high school graduates and below, undergraduates, and graduate students and above. The income levels were grouped into six categories: USD 144 or less, USD 145–362, USD 363–724, USD 725–1449, USD 1450–2898, and USD 2899 and above. The annual frequency of camping trips was divided into four categories: 1–2 times per year, 3–4 times per year, 5–6 times per year, and more than 6 times per year [16].

3.2.2. Ecotourism Motivation

EM is the psychological need and desire to participate in tourism, stimulating, guiding, and integrating behaviors and activities [110]. Motivation plays an important role in making people feel psychologically balanced and can be corrected through travel experiences [111]. The questionnaire consisted of twenty-one questions and seven dimensions: self-development (five items), ego-defensive function (three), escape (three), nature (three), building personal relationships (two), interpersonal relationships (three), and rewards (two). Responses were measured using a 5-point scale, the ranging is 1 (Not much) to 5 (So much).

3.2.3. Satisfaction

SA pertains to the level of contentment experienced during or after ecotourism [112]. The satisfaction dimension of the questionnaire consisted of three items and responses were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).

3.2.4. Place Attachment

PA comprises place dependence and identity. As is well known, place identity forms a positive attitude, leading to increased concern and motivating behavior. Place dependence refers to the external function of a place to satisfy a person’s desires thus, forming a functional attachment [113]. The questionnaire consisted of place identity (three items) and dependence (four), using a 5-point Likert scale to measure responses, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).

3.2.5. Environmentally Responsible Behavior Intention

ER refers to personal environmental norms and an individual’s sense of moral obligation. ER is the belief and responsibility of observation to act in a certain way concerning the environment [27]. The questionnaire consisted of four items from one dimension and used a 5-point Likert scale to measure responses, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).

4. Results

4.1. Characteristics of Participants

The sample comprised 400 respondents (67.0% men, and 33.0% women). In terms of age, they have been distributed across the following age groups:18–19 (8.0%), 20–29 (29.0%), 30–39 (30.3%), 40–49 (15.3%), 50–59 (11.5%), and 60 years and above (6.0%). Notably, the tourist population is predominantly concentrated in the 20–39 years old age group. The educational level of the respondents has been stratified as high school graduates or below (20.5%), undergraduates (66.3%), and graduates and above (13.3%). In terms of economic income, most respondents earn between 363–724 dollars (37.5%), followed by 725–1449 dollars (31.0%). Most of them reported traveling 1–2 times per year (61.3%), followed by 3–4 times per year (19.5%). The most favored types of tourism destinations are forest camps (45.8%), followed by lake camps (17.8%). The detailed investigation results are shown in

Table 2. Demographic characteristics.

Characteristics	N = 400		%
Gender	Male	268	67.0
	Female	132	33.0
Age	18–19 years old	32	8.0
	20–29 years old	116	29.0
	30–39 years old	121	30.3
	40–49 years old	61	15.3
	50–59 years old	46	11.5
	Over 60 years old	24	6.0
Education	High school graduation and below	82	20.5
	College degree	265	66.3
	Graduate student or above	53	13.3
Income (CNY)	1000 or below (144 dollars or below)	20	5.0
	1001–2500 (145–362 dollars)	29	7.2
	2501–5000 (363–724 dollars)	150	37.5
	5001–10,000 (725–1449 dollars)	124	31.0
	10,001–20,000 (1450–2898 dollars)	51	12.8
	20001 or above (2899 dollars or above)	26	6.5
Camping times	1–2 times a year	245	61.3
	3–4 times a year	78	19.5
	5–6 times a year	53	13.3
	More than 6 times a year	24	6.0
Camping types	Forest camp	183	45.8
	Lake camp	71	17.8
	Mountain camp	52	13.0
	Seashore camp	63	15.8
	Village camp	31	7.8

.

4.2. Measurement

To confirm the model fit, model measurements were assessed. These measurements include comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and normal fit index (NFI), goodness of fit (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit (AGFI), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) which must meet specific thresholds. For CFI and NFI, the threshold is greater than 0.90, while for RMSEA it is less than 0.08 [31]. SRMR, which ranges from zero to one, is considered a good fit when the standard value is less than 0.08 [114]. GFI and AGFI measure the correspondence between the observed covariance matrix and the model-predicted covariance matrix, and a value greater than 0.90 indicates a suitable fit [115]. In this study, the measurement model fit was evaluated using several indices, including χ²/df < 3.00, RMSEA < 0.08, Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) > 0.90, and CFI > 0.90 [14]. The results show that χ² = 826.004, df = 542, p < 0.05, χ²/df = 1.524, TLI = 0.952, RMSEA = 0.036, incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.957, and CFI = 0.956, GFI = 0.892, SRMR = 0.053, AGFI = 0.874, indicating an acceptable model fit [5]. The results are shown in

Table 3. Model fit for the measurement model.

Overall Index	χ2	df	p	χ2/df	RMSEA	TLI	IFI	CFI	GFI	AGFI	SRMR
Initial model	826.004	542	0.000	1.524	0.036	0.952	0.957	0.956	0.892	0.874	0.053
Criterion			p > 0.05	<3.00	<0.08	>0.90	>0.90	>0.90	>0.90	>0.90	<0.08
Decision			Bad	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good

.

Discriminant validity was achieved when the AVE of the construct is greater than the squared correlation between the measurement model structures [116]. The convergence effectiveness measures the degree to which the indicators are related to their structure or represents the same underlying concepts. It can be calculated through the AVE extracted by analysis, shared variance between indicators and structures, and the statistical significance of the indicators [117]. As shown in

Table 4. Discriminatory validity of the model.

	EM	SA	PA	ER
EM	0.662
SA	0.347	0.554
PA	0.539	0.671	0.683
ER	0.301	0.231	0.424	0.525

, the square of the correlation coefficients ranges from 0.231–0.671, which is mostly smaller than the AVE value of each variable (0.525–0.683), indicating good discriminant validity. The correlation between SA and PA is relatively high; however, the remaining values are within acceptable ranges. Some scholars consider the relaxed acceptable range of correlation coefficients between variables to be 0.90 or higher, allowing for research to continue. Moreover, the failure of the basic assumptions of the model does not explain its quality; only the overall results are convincing. Statistical researchers assume that many small and relatively unaffected variables produce a normal error term with occasional large outliers [118]. Overall, the measurement model appears to have reasonable discriminant validity [1].

4.3. Structural Model

We used the analysis of moment structures (AMOS) 26.0, to establish a structural equation model. After verifying the measurement model, EM, SA, and PA were found to have significant positive effects, as were SA and PA, and PA and ER. It was also found that SA and PA play a mediating role in the relationship between EM and ER [12].

The AMOS program uses bootstrapping as a resampling program, which randomly selects and replaces multiple sub-samples of the same size as the parent sample from the population [17], providing data for research on the variability of fitting indices and parameter estimation [56]. The CFA allows the use of the following indices to evaluate the model fit: χ²/df < 3.00, RMSEA < 0.08, TLI > 0.90, CFI > 0.90, and IFI > 0.90. In this study, χ² = 1004.158, df = 545, p < 0.05, χ²/df = 1.842, RMSEA = 0.046, TLI = 0.923, IFI = 0.930, and CFI = 0.929, GFI = 0.878, AGFI = 0.858, SRMR = 0.062, the result indicating that the structural model has a good fit [5] (See

Table 5. Model fit for the structural model.

Overall Index	χ2	df	p	χ2/df	RMSEA	TLI	IFI	CFI	GFI	AGFI	SRMR
Initial model	1004.158	545	0.000	1.842	0.046	0.923	0.930	0.929	0.878	0.858	0.062
Criterion			p > 0.05	<3.00	<0.08	>0.90	>0.90	>0.90	>0.90	>0.90	<0.08
Decision			Bad	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good	Good

).

The present study tests six hypotheses by analyzing a structural model, most of which are supported, as shown in

Table 6. SEM results for structural model.

Path Coefficients between Factors	S.E.	C.R.	β	p	Decision
H1: EM→SA	0.090	7.090	0.552	0.000 ***	Supported
H2: EM→PA	0.075	4.183	0.357	0.000 ***	Supported
H3: EM→ER	0.143	0.387	0.055	0.699	Unsupported
H4: SA→PA	0.080	5.973	0.623	0.000 ***	Supported
H5: SA→ER	0.205	−0.674	−0.160	0.500	Unsupported
H6: PA→ER	0.399	2.121	0.744	0.034 *	Supported

Note. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.

. EM has a very significant and positive impact on SA (β = 0.552, p = 0.000), supporting HI. Similarly, H2 is supported, as EM significantly and positively impacts PA (β = 0.357, p = 0.000). However, the result shows that EM has no impact on ER (β = 0.055, p = 0.699), owing to which H3 is not supported. H4 is supported, as SA has a positive impact on PA (β = 0.623, p = 0.000), whereas, because SA has no impact on ER (β = −0.160, p = 0.500), H5 is not supported. Finally, H6 is supported as PA positively correlates with ER (β = 0.744, p = 0.034) (see Figure 1).

5. Discussion

This study explores the causes of ER among campers based on previous studies investigating the relationships between EM, SA, PA, and ER, thereby, enhancing the theoretical understanding of nature-based camping tourism.

This study investigated the relationship among EM, SA, PA, and ER of camping tourists. It is important to consider potential differences between pre- and post-pandemic outcomes in order to provide a comprehensive analysis. However, since this study only targeted camping tourists after the pandemic, it has limitations in comparing before and after the pandemic. Research conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic found that EM was influenced by factors such as nature-based experiences, seeking, and escaping [119,120]. These motivations contributed to tourists’ SA, PA, and ER within the ecotourism experience. The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the global tourism industry and travel patterns. Travel restrictions, health concerns, and changes in consumer behavior have affected the dynamics of ecotourism. This suggests that there may be changes in EM, SA, PA, and ER after the pandemic. For example, camping tourists may prioritize health and safety considerations over other motivations such as cultural immersion or environmental conservation [121]. The pandemic may have affected SA, PA, and ER levels as travelers’ expectations and experiences may have changed due to restrictions, reduced services, or modified itineraries. As a result, post-pandemic outcomes may reveal differences in ER. However, further research is needed to fully explore and compare the pre- and post-pandemic dynamics in the context of EM, SA, PA, and ER.

Compared with previous studies [28,29,30,31], this study fully acknowledges the distinctiveness of ecological tourism and integrates a framework for SA and PA to provide an interpretation. To bridge this gap, the theoretical background of ecological tourism for campers was discussed and data collected from a questionnaire survey from campers in Yunnan, China were utilized.

The results show that EM has a significant impact on SA, supporting H1, suggesting that individuals motivated to engage in ecotourism activities, such as camping in ecological environments have more positive and satisfying tourism experiences. This can be inferred from the fact that camping in natural environments provides a unique and immersive experience tailored to individual values and preferences. Motivation itself can be considered a trigger for travel, significantly influencing satisfaction decision-making, especially, for those seeking escape and relaxation. Ecotourism motivation is closely related to the natural environment and can often enhance the level of the experience [122], ultimately leading to higher levels of tourism satisfaction [56]. Thus, our findings align with previous studies, indicating that ecotourism motivation has a significant impact on tourism satisfaction [56,59,123,124].

While previous studies have demonstrated a correlation between EM and SA, there is still a lack of comprehensive discussion regarding the specific mechanisms underlying this relationship. Consequently, we propose a psychological perspective to elucidate the underlying causes of this phenomenon. During the process of engaging in ecotourism, tourists may exhibit varying levels of psychological engagement due to differences in their EM. Tourists with higher levels of EM tend to demonstrate a stronger affinity for nature and derive greater enjoyment from camping experiences. This intrinsic drive leads them to have more immersive tourism experiences and derive pleasure from living in harmony with nature. Consequently, meeting these expectations and experiencing such SA contributes to the overall SA. However, it is essential to note that this proposed perspective is subject to critical examination and further empirical investigation. While it provides a potential framework for understanding the relationship between EM and SA, rigorous research is needed to fully substantiate and validate these psychological mechanisms in the context of ecotourism.

Additionally, the findings show that EM has a significant impact on PA, supporting H2, suggesting that individuals motivated to participate in ecotourism activities, such as appreciating natural settings are more likely to emotionally connect with their visited environment. This observation can be traced to the natural environment dimension, which reflects ecotourism’s primary goal of fostering human-nature relationships [43], which plays a crucial role in forming PA. Additionally, motivation has been identified as a key factor in determining tourists’ attachment to destinations. Kyle et al. [28] reported that natural environments provide the desired psychological, social, and physiological outcomes, motivating individuals to interact with the park environment and fostering the development of their attachment to the setting. Prayag and Lee [61] investigated the influence of nationality and hotel star ratings on the association between tourist motivation and PA and discovered that tourist motivation has a significant impact on PA. Xu and Zhang [31] found that tourists’ motivations influenced their attachment to the environment. Thus, our findings are in agreement with those of previous studies, suggesting that EM plays a significant role in shaping PA [28,31,61].

Although past studies have demonstrated the relationship between EM and PA, it is crucial to critically examine the findings of these studies. Most of the prior investigations were conducted prior to the emergence of the pandemic, thus overlooking the impact of travel restrictions and prolonged isolation on the directionality of EM. During the severe period of the pandemic, individuals were prohibited from visiting crowded tourist sites due to health concerns, resulting in a change in their PA towards different situations. However, the survey conducted in this study revealed that EM still positively influences PA even after the pandemic. This suggests that EM can be generated solely on a psychological level, relying on internal motivations, even without frequent environmental interactions. These findings indicate that the influence of EM on PA is based on intrinsic psychological mechanisms rather than solely on the stimulation of environmental interactions as suggested by Kyle et al. [28].

Additionally, the findings show that EM has no significant impact on ER, thus, rejecting H3, which suggests that EM does not inherently result in ER and implies that the primary motivation for tourists engaging in ecotourism may not be environmental protection. It can be inferred that campers who mainly seek relaxation and enjoyment may not have a strong interest in ER. However, this study also suggests that variables related to EM, such as pleasant experiences, satisfaction, and attachment to the campsite, can indirectly contribute to ER promotion. Moscardo et al. [125] found that, although ecotourism can enhance environmental knowledge and awareness, it does not necessarily result in behavioral changes. Therefore, our findings are consistent with those of previous studies, indicating that EM does not have a positive influence on environmentally responsible behavior [125,126]. However, Ma et al. [19] found that both intrinsic and extrinsic travel motivations are equally important to visitors and are significantly associated with their environmental attitudes and ER.

Furthermore, SA significantly affects PA, supporting H4, suggesting that tourists’ satisfaction positively influences their attachment to a place, including place dependence and identity. Place dependence represents functional attachment based on the perceived suitability of a specific activity, whereas place identity indicates symbolic attachment based on self-concept and contribution to identity. Place dependence and place identity play crucial roles in tourists’ attachment to a particular campsite. Ramkissoon et al. [26] proposed that satisfied individuals are more likely to form PA and that SA serves as an antecedent to PA. The SA, which reflects the extent to which campers have a delightful experience in a specific area, exhibits a meaningful relationship with PA, including place dependence and identity. Therefore, our findings are in agreement with those of previous studies, suggesting that SA significantly affects PA [26,127,128]. Conversely, Chow et al. [27] reported that place identity and place dependence have a positive correlation with visitor SA in Chinese tourism.

Understanding the directional relationship and causal sequence of how SA affects PA and how PA affects SA provides valuable insights into the dynamics and underlying mechanisms of the relationship. Examining the impact of SA on PA can reveal how an individual’s overall SA with a tourism experience affects their emotional connection and attachment to a particular place. Similarly, exploring the impact of PA on SA is important for understanding the influence of emotional connection and sense of belonging to a place on an individual’s overall SA with the tourism experience. In future follow-up studies, it will be necessary to establish a bidirectional influence relationship and clarify the magnitude of the effect between SA and PA. By examining bidirectional relationships, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of how SA and PA mutually influence and reinforce each other over time. This deeper analysis will contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics at play in the relationship between SA and PA.

The findings also suggest that SA does not affect ER, rejecting H5, which predicts a positive relationship between the tourists’ SA and ER. That is to say, even if the SA of campers increases, it does not directly affect ER. Rahmandad and Sterman [129] found that environmental satisfaction does not directly affect green consumption behavior, because environmental knowledge and awareness are stronger predictors of green behavior. Furthermore, our findings are in agreement with those of previous studies [129,130,131], the result showed SA has no significant impact on ER. Therefore, the results suggest that simply satisfying tourists does not induce ER and a more strategic approach is needed to develop ecotourism.

Lastly, the findings indicate that PA significantly influences ER, supporting H6. PA fosters a sense of belonging and care for a place [132], helps recognizes its ecological value and importance, motivates environmentally friendly behavior, and promotes environmental responsibility [81]. Environmental responsibility is reflected in actions such as proper waste disposal, water and energy conservation, and adherence to rules in campsites or natural environments. Scannell and Gifford [133] found that individuals with strong attachments to nature and civic places were more likely to engage in pro-environmental behavior. Williams and Vaske [36] developed a psychometric scale to measure place attachment and found that individuals with higher scores were more inclined to participate in pro-environmental behaviors, making PA a useful tool for promoting ER. Therefore, our findings are in agreement with those of previous studies [36,81,132,133], indicating that PA significantly affects ER.

6. Conclusions

This study develops a well-structured model with EM as the key predictor and SA, PA, and ER as the outcomes. Not all the hypotheses are supported, EM impacts SA and PA but not ER. The SA influences PA, whereas, PA influences ER. The model provides referable suggestions for camping tourists and probes into the main factors that affect the sustainable development of ecological environments at campsites.

National and cultural differences may affect tourists’ EM, SA, PA, and ER [134,135,136], there is a need to re-examine structural models that reflect the international and multicultural perspectives of different countries. This study used a random sampling technique, however, the data are cross-sectional and may not be generalized to long-term ecotourism behavior [135,136]. In addition, the present study has a limitation in not being able to directly compare before and after the pandemic in identifying the relationship between EM and ER of camping tourists.

6.1. Implications

It is important to develop programs that consider EM in campground operations and management. Thus, we developed a well-constructed model with EM as the key predictor and SA, PA, and ER as outcomes. This can help tourists practice ecological environmental protection and sustainable tourism culture. A sustainable living program can be developed and implemented if a specific program-development strategy is proposed, helping tourists to live sustainably at their campsites. For example, campsite managers can adopt and present sustainable living methods such as separating garbage and using eco-friendly bags. They can also develop and implement environmental experience programs, enabling tourists to increase their understanding of environmental protection and sustainable development, and practice within the campsite. For example, they can provide environmental experience programs such as natural exploration and forest experience.

SA has a significant impact on EM, PA, and ER, which adds to the scope of tourism research. Efforts should be made to cultivate and perfect the key elements of EM to improve and enhance the PA and SA of camping tourists. This will significantly affect their ER. Among these elements, local attachment was the most important factor driving ER. In comparison, local dependence had a greater impact on ER than did local identity. Local dependence not only directly and significantly affects the ER of campers but also realizes it through local identity. Therefore, to fully cultivate ER in camping tourists, camping site management should not only focus on EM and SA but also fully consider the importance of local attachment.

The SA affects PA, which, in turn, affects the intention to act with environmental responsibility. Campsite facilities and services should first be improved to promote ER. Campsite managers can increase visitor satisfaction by improving campground facilities and services. Visitor satisfaction can be increased by providing clean and comfortable restrooms, convenient parking facilities, and safe and efficient waste disposal systems. Local cultural experience programs can also be implemented. Campsite managers can help visitors experience and understand the local culture by running local cultural experience programs to help them feel connected to the local community and strengthen their sense of place. They should also make efforts to protect the natural environment. Protecting and maintaining the natural environment is very important for campsites. By improving the garbage disposal system or conducting activities to protect the ecosystem around campsites, the awareness of environmental protection among visitors can be raised.

To pursue sustainable development, nature-based tourism operators and campsite managers can work together with the local community to consider campground operations and ecological environment protection and seek sustainable campsite operation plans. For example, one proposal could involve engaging stakeholders in conservation efforts by establishing community-based conservation programs. This could include organizing volunteer days where community members, campers, and staff collaborate to restore natural habitats and clean up the surrounding areas. Such activities can foster a sense of ownership and responsibility for the campsite’s ecological environment. Additionally, in collaboration with the local community, a sustainable tourism campaign can be developed through educational initiatives targeting camping tourists. This would involve educating campers about the importance of minimizing their environmental impact, practicing the Leave No Trace principles, and respecting local culture and traditions while implementing joint awareness campaigns.

It is crucial to establish a system of cooperation and participation with the local community to operate campgrounds and protect the ecological environment. By engaging in conversations with local residents, one can identify problems within a campsite and find solutions collaboratively. Additionally, educating local residents and campsite users on the importance of ecosystem conservation and encouraging them to work together to preserve it could be effective. Developing a plan for the sustainable operation of campsites is also important. For instance, introducing a photovoltaic power generation system to reduce electricity consumption or using recyclable materials to construct campsites are viable options.

6.2. Future Research

Although the findings are significant, some limitations need to be further explored. First, the limited range of camping tourists targeted implies that the results may vary depending on country, region, and season. Therefore, follow-up studies that can gather a more diverse research sample are necessary to obtain more generalizable results. Moreover, to account for the differences in camping tourist behavior based on the aforementioned factors, it is essential to conduct comparative analyses by region, country, and season. This will help researchers overcome the limitations of this study resulting from the limited range of camping tourists. Second, as data were not collected over time, there are limitations in identifying trends. Future studies that track the behavioral patterns of campers or changes in the ecological environment over a certain period can provide important clues for the development of a sustainable camping tourism industry, as they can enable the identification of long-term trends, leading to more reliable research results being derived as opposed to identifying only temporary or one-off changes.