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Review

Quality, Key Production Factors, and Consumption Volume of Niche Edible Oils Marketed in the European Union

by
Kamil Czwartkowski
1,
Arkadiusz Wierzbic
1 and
Wojciech Golimowski
2,*
1
Department of Production and Labor Management, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, 120/118 Komandorska st., 53-345 Wroclaw, Poland
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering and Quality Analysis, Wroclaw University of Economics and Business, 120/118 Komandorska st., 53-345 Wroclaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1846; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031846
Submission received: 3 January 2022 / Revised: 28 January 2022 / Accepted: 1 February 2022 / Published: 5 February 2022
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Consumer’s awareness of the health-promoting aspects of food and their search for products with high nutritional value is driving increased interest in niche oils. Such oils are produced on a small scale due to limited access to raw material and its low oil content. The aim of this multi-criteria analysis was to position niche oils. Data for the study were collected based on a literature review regarding twenty-three niche oils available on the European Union market. Analysis of quality parameters, key production factors, waste reusability, and average annual consumption volume in 2015–2020 was performed. Based on the research, it was concluded that linseed (flaxseed) oil, hemp oil, mustard oil, raspberry seed oil, and sesame oil should be of the most interest to consumers. They are characterized by the highest content of tocopherols, sterols, polyphenols, and carotenoids, a favorable ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and pro-ecological and sustainable production technology. Based on the results of the study, the need for empirical research was identified, the key to filling the knowledge gaps in the area of edible niche oils.

1. Introduction

There has been an increased interest in oil crops worldwide in the last few years due to their versatile uses [1]. They are not only a source of edible vegetable oils but also biofuels, animal feeds, and functional foods [2]. In Europe, rapeseed, sunflower, olive trees, and soybean are mainly grown on an industrial scale [3]. The area of oilseed crops in the European Union in 2020 is about 16 million ha (including rapeseed—6 million ha, sunflower—4.5 million ha, olive trees—4 million ha, and soybean—1 million ha) [4]. From the given area, 16.1 million tons of rapeseed, 8.9 million tons of sunflower seed, 11.8 million tons of olive seed, and 2.6 million tons of soybean seed were obtained [5]. The volume production of oils from the mentioned plants in the European Union is: for rapeseed 9.4 million tons, which is 99% satisfies the needs of the European market, for sunflower oil 3.6 million tons [6], and for olive oil 2 million tons—67% of the world’s production [7]. Even though soybean is grown worldwide for oil production, in Europe, it is considered as a protein crop to produce animal feed, among others [8]. This is due to the fact that rapeseed and sunflower have almost twice the oil content [9]. Additionally, including climatic conditions of Europe, soybean is not a sufficient source of oil [10]. Due to the large scale of production, the above-discussed oils constitute a group of industrial oils [11], which are most frequently used as the main source of vegetable fat [12], cosmetics [13], in thermal food processing [14], and as biofuels [15]. In the European Union, except cooking oils and the industrially produced oils discussed above, there are also luxury oils [16] produced from seeds whose main purpose is not to be processed in the oil industry [17]. These oils are usually characterized by better organoleptic qualities and health-promoting properties than conventional oils [18]. This is because they are not subjected to a partial or complete refining process [19]. Consumers’ awareness in conscious consumption leads to the search for new products with high health-promoting values [20] and the increased volume sale of these oils [21] and the extension of manufacturers’ offers with oils from more and more untypical plants, e.g., raspberry seed oil and tomato seed oil [22]. The niche oil market (niche oils are considered a luxury product) is oriented towards consumers who are aware of the health-promoting properties of food products [23], who follow a balanced diet [24], and are looking for new functional products [25]. The number of health-conscious consumers in Europe is steadily increasing. It becomes necessary to identify niche oils that would best meet their needs [26]. In the process of the niche oil production, the technology is important: it should be as simple as possible and fit into the principles of sustainable development policy. However, despite their health-promoting values and many marketing campaigns, the source of raw material for their production is too small for industrial production [27]. The aim of this study was to classify and select niche oils best suited for production and report the recommendations for producers and future consumers.

2. Positioning of Niche Oils According to the Marketing Mix Concept (4Ps)

The production and marketing of niche oils is the manufacturers’ response to the growing interest of conscious consumers in non-traditional products such as edible niche oils. Therefore, the positioning of this type of product was carried out from the supplier’s point of view. For this purpose, the classic marketing mix formula “4Ps” was used (product, price, place, and promotion), created by McCarthy [28].

2.1. Product

The primary use of niche oils is for direct or indirect consumption, as these oils are valuable sources of many nutrients. The most important components of niche oils are monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids, the ratio of which in a high-quality product should be 1:2–5 [29]. Moreover, niche oils also contain important biologically active substances, e.g., tocopherols, sterols, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds [30,31,32], as well as vitamins and minerals [33]. In Europe, there is no regulation on the quality of niche, unrefined oil products from plant seeds, so these products are evaluated through the lens of consumer needs [34]. Organoleptic characteristics and physicochemical properties of the product are considered [35]. For niche oil, the organoleptic characteristics are color, clarity, aroma, and palatability. A good niche oil should be characterized by uniform and very clear color, high clarity, and a fresh and clean aroma characteristic of the plant. The above criteria encourage the consumer to consume such oil [36]. The second criterion for consumer evaluation is the physical and chemical properties of niche oils, which consists of the sum of the content of the listed nutrients. Putting together the organoleptic characteristics and physicochemical properties, the total quality of the oil is obtained. It depends on the extraction technology, conditions, and storage time [37]. Niche oils are extracted by simplified technology used for industrial oil production, which maximizes quality parameters. For this, mechanical pressing or solvent extraction are used [38]. Refining processes are recommended in some cases to remove impurities entering the oil from the seeds [39]. Refining usually consists of four independent processes: degumming, bleaching, dewaxing, and deodorization [40]. Each of them is aimed at extending the shelf life and improving the sensory qualities of the oil [41]. How the final product is stored is also an important consideration for consumers. All vegetable oils undergo biodegradation resulting in changes in their quality parameters, sensory qualities, and nutritional values. Therefore, storage conditions have a significant impact on the quality of the product delivered to consumers [42]. As demonstrated by Kiritsakis et al., colored glass packaging shows the best ability to preserve the shelf life of vegetable oils [43]. Their storage temperature is also important, which should be between 10–15 °C [44]. When sourced, processed, and stored properly, oil provides consumers with a quality product that can meet their growing demands [45].

2.2. Price

The price of niche oils the most important technological aspects affecting the price of the final product are the length and energy intensity of running the process [46]. The high price of solvents and the energy cost of their evaporation cause the total cost of the extraction process to far exceed the cost of pressing for small-scale production [47]. In addition, some oils (usually obtained by extraction) require subsequent refining. Refining processes reduce quality parameters and generate additional costs [48]. It is recommended to conduct the process of obtaining niche oil in such a way that its subsequent refining is not necessary. The oiliness, size, and difficulty of obtaining the seeds of the selected plant are also important. In order for niche oils to retain their full qualities, they should be stored in appropriate conditions, usually in dyed glass bottles and adapted cold storage [49]. The price of niche oil, which after production has not found an immediate buyer, is therefore increased by the costs associated with its storage. For niche oil producers, it is important that these products are perceived by consumers as luxury goods. As a result, their price must correspond to their uniqueness. The final price of niche oil is several times higher than its production costs [50].

2.3. Place

Paksoy et al. indicated that the length of the distribution channel for edible vegetable oils depends on the consumer profile. In the oriented niche for this reason, distribution channels should be as short as possible. Oils sourced directly from producers are the most popular [51]. This is especially important for consumers living in areas where small and medium-sized oil companies are located. Such consumers are eager to buy local products that they consider to be of high quality [52]. The lengthening of distribution channels is associated with the occurrence of consumers’ doubts about the quality of the product they buy, as they are not able to check how the product was stored at different stages of circulation [53]. In recent years, sales of niche edible oils in big-box stores and online retailers have been increasing. However, in this case, an important criterion for purchase is the guarantee of product origin [54].

2.4. Promotion

The main source of promotion and consumer interest in products with high health benefits is the emergence of the online food market, which has helped to increase consumption, availability, and dissemination of information about the effects of these products on human health [55]. For niche oils, competing only on price, quality, and advertising is insufficient. Due to the rarity of niche oils, customer demand depends mainly on their knowledge of product characteristics, image, and availability of the chosen brand. For this reason, more and more manufacturers are investing in marketing campaigns to increase consumer awareness while associating with a specific brand [51,52,53,54,55,56]. In recent years, environmental factors are also becoming important. Of particular importance is the adherence to the principles of sustainable development. The most preferred products are those obtained as waste-free as possible and using green technologies. An appropriately selected technological line (for most niche oils) meets the above criteria [57].

3. Research Purpose and Scope

The aim of this study was to classify and select niche oils best suited for production and recommendations for producers and future consumers. To achieve this purpose, it is necessary to satisfy two specific purposes:
  • Compilation of key production factors with the possibility of waste reusing and the level of niche oils consumption,
  • Comparison of main niche oils’ quality parameters.
The review of over 450 scientific papers (pre-reviewed articles, literature reviews, and statistical sources) from 2000 to 2021 was carried out. To write this review, one hundred and sixty-four papers were cited. Mainly scientific articles were used, which accounted for about 70% of all sources.
Based on literature analysis, 23 types of niche selected oils were described considering the technology of obtaining with the possibility of reuse of waste, the volume of consumption, and health-promoting properties (the content of tocopherols, sterols, phenols, and carotenoids).

3.1. Almond Oil

Almond oil is a light yellow, transparent, thick liquid with a light consistency and a characteristic sweet smell. It is produced by pressing crushed seeds of the common almond tree (Prunus dulcis L.), and oil content ranges from 35–40% [58]. More than 2.5 million tons of common almond kernels are harvested worldwide, of which about 30% is for oil production and less than half of that is for edible oils. The consumption of this oil in Europe accounts for 25% of the world’s consumption [59,60]. It is characterized by a fivefold predominance of monounsaturated fatty acids over polyunsaturated ones, and oleic acid dominates among them [27]. The average content of tocopherols is 38 mg/100 g, sterols 312.1 mg/100 g, phenols 64.5 mg/100 g, and carotenoids 4.9 mg/100 g [61,62,63]. The manufacturing wastes are mainly used to produce food additives and cosmetics [64].

3.2. Argan Oil

Edible argan oil is produced by pressing the roasted and crushed seeds of Argania spinosa L. This yields up to 43% oil on a dry basis. The residue after pressing is extracted. The oil obtained as a result of this process is used in the production of cosmetics. The two-stage extraction of argan oil is one of the factors due to which the import to European countries during 20 years increased 1300-fold, exceeding 140 thousand tons [65]. The oil content of the argan seed is 50–55%. Argan oil is characterized by a dark golden color with a slightly nutty taste and smell. It contains almost twice as much monounsaturated fatty acids as polyunsaturated. The average content of tocopherols is 71.9 mg/100 g, sterols 295 mg/100 g, phenols 32.6 mg/100 g, and carotenoids 2.1 mg/100 g [66,67,68,69].

3.3. Avocado Oil

Avocado oil is extracted from the flesh of Persea americana Mill, usually by low-temperature pressing. This method allows preservation of the highest amount of health-promoting components and use of the waste for food and cosmetics. The oil content of the pulp is about 60%. The raw oil has a dark green-brown color, a buttery and nutty taste, and an unpleasant smell. For this reason, it is recommended to subject it to bleaching and deodorization. Partially refined oil has fewer biologically active components, but its organoleptic qualities are improved (light green color, mild taste, and smell). Monounsaturated fatty acids predominate in it, and the content of tocopherols reaches 120 mg/100 g and sterols 100 mg/100 g [70]. In contrast, a study by Krumreich et al. showed that the phenolic content averages 21 mg/100 g and carotenoids average 46.3 mg/100 g [71]. The consumption of avocado oil in Europe accounts for only 8.6% (193 thousand tons) of the global avocado oil market [72].

3.4. Black Seed Oil

Black seed oil is obtained from the seeds of the nigella plant (Nigella sativa L.), and the oil content ranges from 28% to 36.4%. There is no industrial cultivation of black cumin in Europe. The seeds are mainly imported from Asia. The production of this oil in Europe reaches 150,000 tons [72]. This oil is characterized by a slightly bitter taste and an intense and spicy smell. Its color can be honey or dark brown. In the case of low-temperature pressing, the obtained oil does not require refining. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:3. The content of tocopherols ranges from 9 to 28 mg mg/100 g, sterols from 199 to 289 mg/100 g [73,74], and phenols 22.6 mg/100 g [75]. Suri et al. showed that the carotenoid content is as low as 0.3 mg/100 g [76], but their study was negated by Rokosik et al., who showed that cumin oil could contain as high as 84 mg/100 g [77]. The pomace remaining after pressing nigella seeds is added to dietary supplements and foods [78].

3.5. Camelina Oil

Camelina (Camelina sativa L.) is one of the oldest oilseed crops grown in Europe. The area under the gold-of-pleasure has declined significantly, favoring rapeseed, the yields of which are more abundant. Currently, in the EU, it amounts to about 100 thousand ha, from which about 200 thousand tons of seeds are obtained. The oil obtained from them fully meets the needs of Europeans [79]. The oil content of the seeds is 36–45%. For nutritional purposes, the recommended production method is low-temperature pressing, after which the oil does not require refining. The residue after pressing can be used in the production of bioproducts, e.g., biofuel or functional foods [80]. This oil is golden or golden-green in color. Its taste is described as nutty and spicy with a hint of bitterness. Kurasiak-Popowska et al. showed that the ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:2 with a clear dominance of α-linolenic acid, which accounts for more than 90% of PUFAs, and the carotenoid content averages 12.6 mg/100 g [81]. In addition, linseed oil contains 80–90 mg/100 g tocopherols [82], 268–360 mg/100 g sterols, and 34.8–39 mg/100 g phenols [83].

3.6. Ricinus Oil

Ricinus oil is characterized by a high content of monounsaturated fatty acids (about 82%, of which more than 90% is ricinoleic acid). The recommended production method is to press the seeds of Ricinus communis L., and the oil content is 40–55%. After pressing, the oil must be boiled with water to remove the toxic ricin. For this reason, this oil is not popular among many consumers, and its annual consumption is about 25 thousand tons [16]. Patel et al. recommended using full refining to remove residual ricin and its derivatives, colloidal matter, phospholipids, and excess free fatty acids. They also pointed to post-production waste in the production of cosmetics and fertilizers [84]. The content of tocopherols in castor oil is about 39.5 mg/100 g [85], sterols 152–247 mg/100 g [86], phenols 40–66 mg/100 g, and carotenoids 1.2–4 mg/100 g [87].

3.7. Corn Oil

Corn oil is characterized by a delicate taste and a golden-orange color. It is extracted from the germ of corn (Zea mays L.), which is a small part of the cob. Therefore, the production of this oil is profitable for corn-processing plants, where the cobs together with the germ are a by-product. Corn germ oiling is 28–34.2%, but this represents less than 3% in the whole cob. Therefore, solvent extraction is the recommended production method. It is necessary to bleach and deodorize the oil thus obtained. Consumption in Europe does not exceed 120 thousand tons [4]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:2. The content of carotenoids reaches 31 mg/100 g [88], tocopherols 89 mg/100 g [61,89], sterols 482 mg/100 g [90], and phenols only 2 mg/100 g [61].

3.8. Cotton Seed Oil

Cotton seed oil is extracted from the seeds of Gossypium hirsutum L., usually by pressing. However, Riaz et al., in their study, suggested extraction as a better method of obtaining this oil because cotton seeds have low oil content (16–17%). In addition, the oil obtained by both methods has a dark color and an unpleasant taste and odor. Therefore, it is necessary to bleach and deodorize it. The consumption of this oil is about 49 thousand tons per year [4]. The production waste can be used for animal feed. Cottonseed oil is dominated by linolenic acid (54.4%), and the ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:3 [16,91,92]. The content of tocopherols is 114 mg/100 g, carotenoids 11 mg/100 g [93,94], sterols 263–292 mg/100 g [95], and phenols 28–37 mg/100 g [96].

3.9. Evening Primrose Oil

Evening primrose oil is extracted from the seeds of Oenothera biennis L. by low temperature-pressing [97]. The oiling of the raw material is 20–30%, and the oil obtained is characterized by a golden color and a nut-bean flavor [98]. The pressed oil should be de-waxed. The consumption of this oil is about 200 thousand tons per year [99]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids in the oil obtained in this way is 1:8 [97,100]. The content of tocopherols is 34–45 mg/100 g, sterols 86–97 mg/100 g, phenols 3–7 mg/100 g [61], and carotenoids 0.7–1.1 mg/100 g [101,102]. According to Hadidi et al., proteinaceous substances can be extracted from tailings [103].

3.10. Flaxseed Oil

Flaxseed oil has a favorable ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids of 1:3, and linolenic acid (53%) dominates among them [16]. The oil content of the raw material (Linum usitatissimum L.) is 30–40%. The recommended method of extraction is low-temperature pressing, and the resulting oil is suitable for direct consumption. It is characterized by a golden-yellow color, an intense, astringent smell, and a characteristic taste of flax [104]. The consumption of this oil in Europe reaches 708 thousand tons. It is a niche oil in semi-industrial production [4]. The content of tocopherols is 140–185 mg/100 g [91,93,105], sterols 340–408 mg/100 g [16], phenols 170–182 mg/100 g [106], and carotenoids 30–32 mg/100 g [101]. The manufacturing wastes can be used in the production of cosmetics, food, and animal feed [107].

3.11. Grape Seed Oil

Grapeseed oil is most often extracted from the seeds of Vitis vinifera L., where oily content is 7–20%. The consumption of this oil reaches 5.6 thousand tons per year [4]. Riaz et al. showed that the production of this oil is profitable when the seeds are a by-product of grape processing-oriented plants [108]. This oil is light yellow in color and transparent. It is characterized by an almost complete absence of taste and odor. The production method recommended by Garavaglia et al. is seed pressing [109]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:4. The content of tocopherols ranges from 30–53 mg/100 g [61], sterols 210–230 mg/100 g [91], phenols 6.4–11.6 mg/100 g [110], and carotenoids 6–7 mg/100 g [111].

3.12. Hemp Seed Oil

Hemp seed oil is usually obtained by the low-temperature pressing of Cannabis sativa L. seeds, and the oil content is 28–35%. Such oil requires only filtration. It has a delicate, nutty smell and a dark brown or black color. Hemp oil is perceived by some consumers as a source of psychoactive substances found naturally in hemp, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). However, as shown by Matthäus and Brühl, no cannabinoids are present in hemp oil [112]. It is characterized by high linolenic acid and α-linolenic acid content, and the ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:3 [113]. The content of tocopherols is 41–110 mg/100 g [114], sterols 390–670 mg/100 g, phenols 45–188 mg/100 g, and carotenoids 9–16 mg/100 g [115]. Post-production residues have a wide range of applications. They can be used as animal feed, functional food, or extracted as protein substances [116]. Consumption of this oil reaches 500 thousand tons per year [117].

3.13. Milk Thistle Oil

Milk thistle oil is pressed from the seeds of Silybum marianum L., whose oily content is 20–25%. The pomace is widely used in natural medicine and the production of cosmetics [118]. The consumption of this oil is about 150 thousand tons per year [119]. It can be consumed directly after the process and does not need to undergo refining [120]. It is characterized by a very favorable ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids of 1:2. The content of tocopherols is 22–64 mg/100 g, sterols 180–220 mg/100 g [118], phenols 38–69 mg/100 g [120], and carotenoids 34–35 mg/100 g [77].

3.14. Mustard Oil

Mustard oil is an oil with a neutral taste. It is extracted from the seeds of Brassica nigra L., whose oil content is 24–33% [121]. The consumption of this oil reaches 170 thousand tons per year [4]. It is characterized by a golden-brown color and a characteristic mustard smell. Sehwag et al. showed that mustard oil should be obtained by pressing because the pressing residue has a higher nutrient content than the post-extraction residue and is an additive for animal feed and functional foods. Pressed mustard oil is suitable for direct consumption [122]. The content of tocopherols is 60–65 mg/100 g [123], sterols 576–637 mg/100 g [124], phenols 14–32 mg/100 g [125], and carotenoids 1.6–2.2 mg/100 g, and the ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 2:1 [126].

3.15. Peanut Oil

Peanut oil is most often extracted from the nuts of Arachis hypogaea L., characterized by a high oil content of up to 54%. A nutty smell and taste characterize the oil. The pomace is used to produce fuels, as a fertilizer filler, in the feed industry, and in cosmetics. The content of tocopherols is 54–130 mg/100 g [16], sterols 89–435 mg/100 g [91], phenols 58–64 mg/100 g [106], and carotenoids 2–2.5 mg/100 g [127]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 2:1 [126]. Akhtar et al. stated that peanut oil does not need to be refined because the pressed oil is suitable for direct consumption, but the extracted oil requires refining. In order to extract the oil, the raw material has to be hulled and ground [128]. The consumption of this oil is about 78 thousand tons per year [4].

3.16. Plum Seed Oil

Plum seed oil is obtained from the seeds of Prunus domestica L., and the oil content is 23–30%. It has a golden color and a marzipan-almond smell. The best method of obtaining it is extraction using non-polar solvents. It is recommended to pre-dry the raw material at a temperature of about 105 °C for two hours. The post-extraction oil may contain waxes. For this reason, its subsequent dewaxing is recommended [129]. The consumption of this oil is about 2.5 thousand tons per year [4]. The fatty acid profile is dominated by monounsaturated fatty acids, whose ratio to polyunsaturated fatty acids is 3:1. The content of tocopherols is 73–75 mg/100 g [130], sterols 121–185 mg/100 g, phenols 5–36 mg/100 g [131], and carotenoids maximum 3.2 mg/100 g [62].

3.17. Pumpkin Seed Oil

The most common method of obtaining pumpkin seed oil is roasting the shelled seeds of Cucurbita maxima L. at 100–120 °C and then pressing them. The obtained oil is clarified by natural sedimentation of solid and liquid fractions with subsequent decantation of the oil or mechanically using filters adapted for this purpose. The resulting oil has a dark green color and a characteristic bitter taste when the seeds are heated. For this reason, its bleaching is recommended [132]. Pumpkin seed oil has a favorable ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids of 1:2 [61]. The oil content of the raw material varies from 13% to 31%. The content of tocopherols is 58–126 mg/100 g [133], sterols 272–318 mg/100 g [134], phenols 10–32 mg/100 g [135], and carotenoids 19–24 mg/100 g [136]. Consumption of this oil is about 180 thousand tons per year [4].

3.18. Raspberry Seed Oil

Raspberry seed oil has a characteristic brown-yellow color. In smell and taste, it resembles olive oil. It is usually obtained through to the low-temperature pressing of Rubus idaeus L. seeds, the oily content of which is 10–24%. However, due to the size of the raw material and the difficulty of obtaining it, the production of this oil is only profitable when the seeds are a by-product of raspberry processing. The annual consumption of this oil reaches 35 thousand tons [4]. It is dominated by polyunsaturated fatty acids, which content is seven times higher than monounsaturated. The content of tocopherols is 74–76 mg/100 g [137], sterols 491–496 mg/100 g [138], phenols 79–89 mg/100 g [139], and carotenoids 22–24 mg/100 g [140].

3.19. Rice Bran Oil

Rice bran oil is extracted from the bran of Oryza sativa L. with an oil content of 12–23% [141]. The most commonly used production method is extraction with short-chain hydrocarbons. After solvent evaporation, vinification and bleaching are recommended to remove waxes and phosphatides from the bran. Complete removal of impurities is very difficult and results in high product losses. Therefore, full refining is not recommended [142]. The product obtained in this way is practically odorless and tasteless. It has a characteristic yellow color. Its annual consumption is about 8 thousand tons [4]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 2:1. The content of tocopherols is 58–93 mg/100 g [143], sterols 395–605 mg/100 g [144], phenols 5–6 mg/100 g [61], and carotenoids 2–3 mg/100 g [127].

3.20. Safflower Oil

Safflower oil is pressed from the seeds of Carthamus tinctorius L., whose oily content is 26–37%. The pomace can be successfully used for biofuel production or medical purposes [145]. This oil has a characteristic yellow-orange color and is neutral in taste. Consumption in Europe per year reaches 32 thousand tons [146]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:5 [147]. The content of tocopherols is 32–60 mg/100 g [140], sterols 208–244 mg/100 g [61], phenols 17–25 mg/100 g [148], and carotenoids 0.1–0.3 mg/100 g [149].

3.21. Sesame Oil

Commonly used in the food industry, sesame oil is dark brown and has a strong nutty aroma. It is extracted by pressing the seeds of Sesamum indicum L., which have an oil content of 44–57% [150]. Shao et al. stated that refining the pressed oil is not necessary, but bleaching is recommended to improve sensory qualities [151]. The pomace is used in the production of confectionery, cosmetics, and medical ointments. The annual consumption is about 48 thousand tons [4]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:5. The content of tocopherols is 35–101 mg/100 g [16], sterols 222–249 mg/100 g [152], phenols 205–212 mg/100 g [153], and carotenoids 19–31 mg/100 g [106].

3.22. Tomato Seed Oil

Tomato seed oil is orange in color and has the characteristic smell of tomatoes. It is most commonly extracted from the seeds of Lycopersicon Esculentum Mill. by extraction, and the post-extraction waste can be used as feed. The oil content of the raw material is 33–38% [154]. Giuffrè and Capocasale stated that producing this oil is only profitable if the seeds are obtained as post-production waste [155]. After processing tomatoes, the so-called tomato pomace remains, which must be dried and the seeds separated from it [156]. The consumption is about 42 thousand tons [4]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:2. The content of tocopherols is 32–37 mg/100 g [61], sterols 174–207 mg/100 g, phenols 29–54 mg/100 g [157], and carotenoids 29–49 mg/100 g [158].

3.23. Walnut Oil

Walnut oil is extracted from the nuts of Juglans regia L., whose oil content is 60–70%. In order to obtain the oil, the nuts need to be stripped of shells and crushed, and it is also recommended to press them [159]. Walnut oil does not need to be refined. The pressed oil has a green-yellow color and a characteristic nut aroma. The pomace is a valuable source of nutrients and contains a significant amount of oil. For this reason, they are suitable for solvent extraction, and the resulting oil can be used in the manufacture of cosmetics [160]. Consumption of this oil averages 68 thousand tons per year [4]. The ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 1:4 [61]. The content of tocopherols is 21–44 mg/100 g [161], sterols 115–169 mg/100 g [162], phenols 91–99 mg/100 g [106], and carotenoids 1–7.5 mg/100 g [163].

4. Results and Discussion

All the information was gathered and is shown in Table 1 and Table 2.
For niche oils, three key production factors can be distinguished: seed oiliness, recommended extraction method, and recommended refining fragment. Other production factors used in the edible oil industry are used in the production of industrial oils. The appropriate compilation of the listed factors allows obtaining a product desired by the consumer. In order to preserve all health-promoting properties, the most commonly recommended method for extracting niche oils is low-temperature pressing (below 50 °C) [64]. This process is less destructive to nutrients than extraction [164]. Additionally, most pressed oils do not require refining, which significantly shortens the production process and reduces its cost. A special case of extraction that is almost as effective as traditional solvent extraction and has a comparable effect on the final product to pressing is the supercritical CO2 extraction method. However, this process is very expensive and not cost-effective for semi-industrial-scale production of niche oils [71]. All of the niche oils studied contain an abundance of nutrients desired by informed consumers. Most of them also contain a favorable ratio of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Seven niche oils with the most favorable health-promoting qualities were selected using Statistica 13.3 software (Statsoft). The distribution of the average nutrient contents of the oils analyzed is shown in Figure 1. Of the oils analyzed, flaxseed oil and hemp oil were the richest in nutrients. Mustard oil and raspberry seed oil had a slightly lower average nutrient content. Rice bran oil, corn oil, and sesame oil were also worth analyzing. All the oils mentioned were statistically in the upper quartile of the analyzed results with normal distribution. Considering technological aspects, corn oil and rice bran oil should be rejected from this group because the recommended method of their production is extraction and their subsequent refining is necessary.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Based on the literature review, it was found that linseed oil, hemp oil, mustard oil, raspberry seed oil, and sesame oil are the niche oils with the best nutrients content, the most environmentally friendly production, and (except for raspberry seed oil) the best possibilities of waste reuse. Discussed parameters are in line with the principles of sustainable development policy. These oils are obtained from plants popular in the European market due to their other characteristics. Moreover, the prevalence and oiliness of these plants mean that the price of oils extracted from them will be lower than oils derived from less common plants. A study of the state of knowledge in niche oils identified information gaps that need to be filled. First, there is a lack of research on the organoleptic evaluation of niche oils. For potential consumers, the organoleptic qualities of the product they buy can be of crucial importance. All tools and standards developed so far refer only to refined oils. Therefore, it would make sense to test their adaptability to niche oils or develop a new tool that allows their sensory evaluation. In addition, it would be useful to see how different methods of obtaining niche oils affect the product’s organoleptic characteristics and correlate them with health-promoting properties to obtain the full spectrum of quality characteristics of niche oils. Second, the potential for reuse of production waste was not identified for some niche oils (grapeseed oil, plum oil, pumpkin oil, raspberry oil, and rice bran oil). It would be important to verify the barriers blocking these activities or find a potential area where they could be used.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.C.; methodology, K.C., A.W. and W.G.; software, K.C. and W.G.; validation, K.C.; formal analysis, A.W. and W.G.; investigation, K.C.; resources, K.C.; data curation, K.C. and W.G.; writing—original draft preparation, K.C.; writing—review and editing, A.W. and W.G.; visualization, K.C. and W.G.; supervision, A.W. and W.G.; project administration, K.C. and W.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The article is financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland under the program “Regional Initiative of Excellence” 2019–2022 project number 015/RID/2018/19.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 14 01846 g001 550
Figure 1. Distribution of the sums of mean nutrient contents in the oils analyzed.
Figure 1. Distribution of the sums of mean nutrient contents in the oils analyzed.
Sustainability 14 01846 g001
Table
Table 1. Technological aspects of the selected niche oils.
Table 1. Technological aspects of the selected niche oils.
Oil TypePlant NameSeed Oiliness (%)Recommended
Extraction Method		Recommended Refining SectionWaste ReuseConsumption (Tons)References
Almond oilPrunus dulcis L.37.5 ± 2.5pressingNDadditives to food, cosmetics production37,500[58,59,60,64]
Argan oilArgania spinosa L.52.5 ± 2.5pressingNDsolvent extraction, use in cosmetics, fuel production140,000[65]
Avocado oilPersea americana Mill.60.0 ± 1.0pressingbleaching, deodorizationnutrition, cosmetics production193,000[70]
Black seed oilNigella sativa L.32.1 ± 4.1pressingNDadditives to dietary supplements, food150,000[72,78]
Camelina oilCamelina sativa L.40.5 ± 4.5pressingNDhigh value bio-based products, e.g., food, fuels80,000[79,80]
Castor oilRicinus communis L.47.5 ± 7.5pressingfull refiningcosmetics, fertilizers production25,000[16,84]
Corn oilZea mays L.30.1 ± 3.1extractionbleaching, deodorizationbiofuels120,000[61,88,89]
Cotton seed oilGossypium hirsutum L.16.5 ± 0.5extractionbleaching, deodorizationanimal feed49,000[4,16,91,92,93]
Evening primrose oilOenothera biennis L.25.0 ± 5.0pressingdewaxingproteins extraction200,000[97,98,99]
Flaxseed oilLinum usitatissimum L.35.0 ± 5.0pressingNDanimal feed, nutrition, cosmetics production, fertilizer708,000[4,16,104,105]
Grape seed oilVitis vinifera L.13.5 ± 6.5pressingNDND5600[108,109]
Hemp seed oilCannabis sativa L.31.5 ± 3.5pressingNDanimal feed, functional food, proteins extraction500,000[112,116,117]
Milk thistle oilSilybum marianum L.22.5 ± 2.5pressingNDnatural medicine, cosmetics production150,000[118,119,120]
Mustard oilBrassica nigra L.28.4 ± 4.3pressingNDanimal feed, functional food170,000[4,121,122]
Peanut oilArachis hypogaea L.47.0 ± 7.0pressingNDbiofuels, filler in fertilizers, feed industry, cosmetics78,000[128]
Plum seed oilPrunus domestica L.26.7 ± 2.2extractiondewaxingND2500[129]
Pumpkin seed oilCucurbita maxima L.22.7 ± 9.2pressingbleachingND180,000[4,132]
Raspberry seed oilRubus idaeus L.16.7 ± 6.5pressingNDND35,000[137,138,139,140]
Rice bran oilOryza sativa L.17.5 ± 5.5extractiondewaxing, bleachingND8000[141,142]
Safflower oilCarthamus tinctorius L.31.5 ± 5.5pressingNDmedicinal purposes, biofuels production32,000[145,146]
Sesame oilSesamum indicum L.50.5 ± 6.5pressingbleachingcosmetics, ointments and sweets production ointments48,000[150,151]
Tomato seed oilLycopersicon Esculentum Mill.35.5 ± 1.9extractionNDanimal feed42,000[154,155,156]
Walnut oilJuglans regia L.65.0 ± 5.0pressingNDsolvent extraction, use in cosmetics, fuel production68,000[159,160]
ND—not detected
Table
Table 2. Unsaturated fatty acid ratio and nutrient content in the selected niche oils.
Table 2. Unsaturated fatty acid ratio and nutrient content in the selected niche oils.
Oil TypeMUFA:PUFATocopherols
(mg/100 g)		Sterols
[mg/100 g]		Phenols
[mg/100 g]		Carotenoids (mg/100 g)References
Almond oil5:138.0 ± 7.2312.1 ± 14.864.5 ± 6.74.9 ± 0.1[27,61,62,63]
Argan oil2:171.9 ± 8.2295.0 ± 45.632.6 ± 2.92.1 ± 0.1[66,67,68,69]
Avocado oil6:1109.2 ± 10.690.9 ± 9.221.0 ± 3.71.3 ± 0.2[70,71,72]
Black seed oil1:318.7 ± 9.7244.0 ± 45.022.6 ± 3.042.3 ± 40.1[73,74,75,76,77]
Camelina oil1:285.0 ± 5.0314.0 ± 46.036.9 ± 2.112.6 ± 0.7[81,82,83]
Castor oil8:139.5 ± 0.2199.5 ± 47.550.4 ± 15.32.6 ± 1.2[85,86,87]
Corn oil1:255.8 ± 33.0480.0 ± 1.51.9 ± 0.121.8 ± 9.9[61,88,89]
Cotton seed oil 1:3100.4 ± 13.6277.5 ± 14.532.5 ± 4.511.0 ± 1.2[16,91,92,93,94,95,96]
Evening primrose oil 1:839.2 ± 5.191.4 ± 5.44.9 ± 1.60.9 ± 0.2[61,97,100,101,102,103]
Flaxseed oil 1:3162.4 ± 20.6374.6 ± 32.6176.7 ± 5.031.3 ± 0.5[16,91,93,101,105,106,107]
Grape seed oil 1:442.4 ± 10.6218.6 ± 9.29.0 ± 2.6 6.7 ± 0.4[61,91,110,111]
Hemp seed oil1:375.5 ± 34.5530.2 ± 139.8116.8 ± 71.212.5 ± 3.1[113,114,115]
Milk thistle oil1:242.9 ± 20.7200.1 ± 19.853.4 ± 15,134.5 ± 0.4[77,118,120]
Mustard oil2:162.4 ± 2.5606.3 ± 30.222.8 ± 8.81.9 ± 0.3[123,124,125,126]
Peanut oil2:192.4 ± 37.6262.1 ± 172.360.1 ± 1.32.3 ± 0.2[16,126,127,128]
Plum seed oil3:173.8 ± 0.4153.1 ± 31.920.4 ± 15.21.9 ± 1.2[62,130,131]
Pumpkin seed oil1:292.6 ± 33.7295.0 ± 22.721.2 ± 10.921.6 ± 2.1[61,133,134,135,136]
Raspberry seed oil1:775.1 ± 0.6493.7 ± 2.284.0 ± 4.223.0 ± 0.3[137,138,139,140]
Rice bran oil2:175.5 ± 17.5500.0 ± 105.05.6 ± 0.32.4 ± 0.2[61,127,143,144]
Safflower oil1:546.0 ± 13.1226.1 ± 17.621.1 ± 3.20.2 ± 0.1[61,140,147,148,149]
Sesame oil1:568.1 ± 32.9235.5 ± 13.5208.6 ± 2.825.0 ± 5.8[16,106,152,153]
Tomato seed oil1:234.6 ± 2.2190.5 ± 16.541.2 ± 12.139.1 ± 9.8[61,157,158]
Walnut oil1:432.9 ± 11.2141.9 ± 26.295.3 ± 3.44.1 ± 3.0[61,106], [161,162]
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Czwartkowski, K.; Wierzbic, A.; Golimowski, W. Quality, Key Production Factors, and Consumption Volume of Niche Edible Oils Marketed in the European Union. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1846. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031846

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Czwartkowski K, Wierzbic A, Golimowski W. Quality, Key Production Factors, and Consumption Volume of Niche Edible Oils Marketed in the European Union. Sustainability. 2022; 14(3):1846. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031846

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Czwartkowski, Kamil, Arkadiusz Wierzbic, and Wojciech Golimowski. 2022. "Quality, Key Production Factors, and Consumption Volume of Niche Edible Oils Marketed in the European Union" Sustainability 14, no. 3: 1846. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031846

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