3.1. Digitization in Dual Vocational Training
The dual vocational training system in Germany focuses on strong practical orientation through simultaneous training at learning locations in companies and in vocational schools. Both areas are closely intertwined but show clear differences with regard to the implementation of ongoing digitization.
Klös et al. [
10] emphasized the relevance of the close interconnection between ongoing digitization and vocational training in companies. In this context, they referred to the dynamic links of theoretical training content with the changed business processes of companies through digital subject content and digital teaching. With reference to the IW Personnel Panel 2020, the authors reported that training companies had a higher average level of digitization than companies that did not offer vocational training and that interest in digital training content has been on the rise in recent years. The results of an entrepreneur survey by Flake et al. [
11] also confirmed the high level of interest among training companies in the digital alignment of business processes.
A 2018 survey collected data from 383 academics, politicians, and practitioners on the topic of apprenticeship and examined the requirements for future-oriented development of vocational schools in the dual training system in Germany on the basis of 18 topics. Digitization emerged as the most important topic. Strengthening vocational schools as partners of training companies was also perceived as an important goal, ranking in fourth place. The authors emphasized that successful cooperation between schools and companies is important to enable high-performance vocational training [
12].
Neuburg et al. [
13] referred to these results and suggested that schools and companies should only be considered in combination in order to provide the best possible support for existing digital options. The authors referred to learning cooperation based on logbooks, which represent a form of documentation of training content in Germany. Since 2010, these can also be produced online as a portfolio, implemented through a government-funded research project; however, the results of the study on the use of this free service showed that in 2019, only 807 of a total of 8770 vocational schools nationwide were registered for the digital service [
13].
These results show that the implementation of digitization is currently low and that the use of digital services in vocational schools is varied. Against the backdrop of the coronavirus pandemic, this issue is becoming increasingly important.
3.2. First School Closure during the Coronavirus Pandemic
Due to the first nationwide school closure, classes were held digitally, if at all. To participate, apprentices needed appropriate equipment, including digital devices. In addition, it was necessary to have access to a sufficient Internet connection. A qualitative survey of young people during the pandemic showed that despite the availability of digital devices, there are access problems because too many people in the household use the Internet at the same time during the pandemic [
14]. Restrictions also arise in companies, the practical place of learning for apprentices. HR managers in apprenticing companies reported that the pandemic has led to operational restrictions and knowledge gaps for apprentices, because not all activities can be transferred to working from home [
15]. A study by Ebbinghaus [
16] showed that in fall 2020, 25% of apprenticing companies implemented working from home. Against the backdrop of the nationwide recommendation to comprehensively implement working from home in companies, this low percentage is particularly striking.
Changes also occurred at vocational schools. At the beginning of this first school closure, clear differences in the implementation of classroom organization could be observed. In a qualitative interview study, vocational school teachers from Germany reported that before the start of the pandemic, only special tablet classes used online learning platforms, while many of the students did not have access to these digital learning opportunities. The scope and frequency of the distribution of learning materials also varied widely [
17]. Some vocational schools provided only photocopies, while others used digital learning materials [
18]. Due to the federal structure, there are also strong regional differences in legal regulations for the design of teaching during the pandemic [
19].
A study from Finland reported that overall student motivation decreased during school closures and students reported excessive workloads and difficulty concentrating during distance learning [
20]; however, social differences between students, such as social background [
21], have also been a factor in school success during the pandemic. A specific example is access to digital devices, which became particularly relevant during the pandemic. Using PISA data from 21 European countries, González-Betancor et al. [
4] showed that access to ICT (information and communication technology) is influenced by the socioeconomic status of parents. This means that parents with a higher socioeconomic status are more likely to provide their children with access to ICT.
Mauroux et al. [
22] examined the use of an online learning platform. Important determinants of usage were device availability, willingness to use the platform, and interest in using smartphones in general, as well as high acceptance of the learning platform and the desire for feedback from the instructor. In addition to socioeconomic background, gender also has an impact on digital learning. In terms of the general use of computers and the Internet, boys have an advantage. A study with data from 39 countries showed that generally boys used computers at home more often than girls in most countries. Likewise, boys used computers and the Internet more often for educational purposes [
23].
Conversely, a study of Austrian secondary school students showed that girls were more committed to digital learning, received more support from teachers, and were more intrinsically motivated [
24]. Within the particular context of online learning during school closures, gender differences in the use of technical equipment can, therefore, be assumed.
Hansen and Plank [
25] argued that the simultaneous closure of schools and other public facilities, such as libraries, during the coronavirus pandemic has put a particular focus on household resources in terms of creating an efficient learning environment. Considering this, the authors pointed out that this may exacerbate already existing educational inequalities for socially disadvantaged students. This is reflected by differences in support opportunities, technical equipment, and language acquisition for families with a migration background. The Berufsbildungsbericht (Vocational Education and Training Report) 2020 pointed out significant differences among immigrant youth depending on their country of origin. For example, young people of Turkish origin in particular have difficulty finding an apprenticeship and are disproportionately represented among those who have not completed an apprenticeship [
26].
Moreover, Hansen and Plank [
25] generally saw a risk in expecting high self-regulation from students. With regard to the theoretical argument of the relevance of developing a sustainable personal learning space in online learning opportunities, this point is particularly crucial. In a study in Lower Austria, Tengler et al. [
5] reported that from teachers’ perspectives, the biggest challenge for distance education during the pandemic has been technical equipment, followed by poor time management and students being overloaded. Digital media contributes significantly to the success of learning during school closures, although not all students can receive the same support as before the pandemic-related school closures. An evaluation of teaching showed a focus on the use of asynchronous media, such as e-mail, textbooks, and printed worksheets. Interactive formats, such as Teams and Moodle, were used less frequently. Only 52% of teachers surveyed based their instruction on videoconferencing. A study of a socioeconomic panel with data from Germany up to 2018 showed that academic performance was particularly related to the spatial conditions of the home learning environment and identified higher support in academic families [
6,
27].
These results also support assumptions about the personal learning environment and underline the importance of the materials and appropriate learning space dimensions in terms of technical devices and additional resources provided by support persons. Based on data from students’ households reported by the National Educational Panel Study (NEPS), analyses indicated that the use of conventional media, such as books, has not changed in frequency due to the pandemic; however, the use of digital learning opportunities with virtual interactive features has increased overall and is particularly high in academic families [
28]. There is already evidence of a deterioration in academic performance in Germany since the start of the pandemic due to a reduction in learning time [
29] and deterioration in math and German performance in skills tests [
30]. A comprehensive literature review by Zierer [
31] also concluded that school closures in the United States, Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Germany have caused a decline in math and language skills since the beginning of the pandemic, despite differences in methodology.
Overall, these results suggest that even before the start of the pandemic, socially disadvantaged students with poor technical equipment and an inadequately designed learning environment performed worse than students benefiting from support in academic households. This disparity is particularly relevant due to the school closures and the shift of learning to the home environment, which are associated with a lack of contact with teachers and resources relevant for learning. In addition to subject knowledge, this also affects basic skills, such as math and language competencies, which are of central importance for success at school and later in a career.
There is also a clear research gap. Specifically, for apprentices in Germany who are students at a vocational school as part of their theoretical training, only one study by the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB, German Federation of Trade Unions) has been performed to date. This study revealed parallels to the aforementioned studies on other types of schools, particularly with regard to the technical equipment in the schools, the quality of teaching, and difficulties with the subject matter in distance learning, as well as gender differences in the perception of examination preparation by the company or school [
32]. The study did not consider the technical equipment available to the apprentices or the extent to which school closures had changed their academic performance. In addition, for apprentices there is a double burden of two learning locations (the school and company) during school closures, which needs to be examined in more detail.