Next Article in Journal
Interdisciplinary Alliances to Deploy Telemedicine Services in Isolated Communities: The Napo Project Case
Previous Article in Journal
Variation in the Soil Microbial Community of Reclaimed Land over Different Reclamation Periods
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 10
Issue 7
10.3390/su10072287
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
Erratum published on 18 April 2019, see Sustainability 2019, 11(8), 2345.
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Sustainability of Abandoned Slopes in the Hill and Gully Loess Plateau Region Considering Deep Soil Water

by
Weijie Yu
1 and
Juying Jiao
1,2,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dry Land Farming on the Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dry Land Farming on the Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources, Yangling 712100, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2018, 10(7), 2287; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072287
Submission received: 7 May 2018 / Revised: 18 June 2018 / Accepted: 26 June 2018 / Published: 2 July 2018
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Soil desiccation of the deep soil layer is considered one of the main limiting factors to achieving sustainable development of ecosystems in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region. In this study, slope croplands were selected as the control, and deep soil water was studied on abandoned slopes, including natural abandoned slopes, Robinia pseudoacacia plantations, and Caragana korshinskii plantations. Then, we explored deep soil water characteristics of different vegetation types and slope aspects and the variation tendencies of deep soil water at different recovery stages. The results showed that there were no significant differences in deep soil water content between sunny and shady slopes, and thus, slope aspect was not the key impact factor affecting deep soil water. Deep soil water content on R. pseudoacacia plantations and C. korshinskii plantations was lower than that on natural abandoned slopes; there were no significant differences in soil water content between the natural abandoned slopes and slope croplands. Soil desiccation did not exist on natural abandoned slopes; thus, natural vegetation restoration is an appropriate way to achieve a sustainable ecosystem with respect to deep soil water. In contrast, soil desiccation intensified until it was difficult for vegetation to obtain available water in the deep soil layer on the plantations; soil desiccation began to appear at the 11–20-year stage, and it became increasingly severe until the deep soil water was close to the wilting coefficient at the ≥30-year stage on R. pseudoacacia plantations. Deep soil water was rapidly consumed, and soil desiccation began to appear at the 1–10-year stage and then was close to the wilting coefficient in the later stages on C. korshinskii plantations. According to the results, the plantations needed to be managed in a timely manner to prevent or reduce soil desiccation.

1. Introduction

The ecological environment is fragile due to long-term cultivation and destruction of vegetation in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region [1]. Vegetation recovery of slope cropland is an essential way to improve the ecological environment, and the main restoration approaches are abandonment and forestation [2,3]. Relevant research demonstrates that natural vegetation is suitable to the ecological environment in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region [4]; for the plantations, as invader plants, Robinia pseudoacacia and Caragana korshinskii have advantages in terms of vegetation recovery because of their resistance to drought and infertility [5]. Thus, under the vegetation restoration project of China’s government, a large area of slope croplands has been converted into grasslands, shrublands, or woodlands during the past few decades, and natural abandoned slope, R. pseudoacacia plantation, and C. korshinskii plantation are the main types of abandoned slope croplands in the hill and gully Loess Plateau [6,7].
With vegetation recovery, ecological benefits have been increasing significantly in the region. For example, vegetation recovery leads to the restoration of soil nutrients and soil structure, and then improves soil fertility; as the coverage of vegetation increases, soil erosion is controlled effectively [8,9]. Even so, because of the fragility of the eco-environment in the region that can be reflected by bad weather, soil erodibility, soil nutrient deficiency, water shortage, and so on, the sustainability of the abandoned slope is disturbed. Consumption of soil water is an inevitable part of the process of vegetation recovery and water is fundamental to the biophysical processes that sustain ecosystem functions in arid and semi-arid regions, where tight coupling exists among ecosystem productivity, surface energy balance, and water source availability [10]. Therefore, water is of particular importance to the hill and gully Loess Plateau region, where drought has been considered the main limiting factor in achieving sustainable development of the vegetation ecosystem [11]. As groundwater levels are generally 30–100 m below the land surface in the Loess Plateau [12], soil water is supplemented primarily by precipitation, of which the depth of infiltration is usually less than 200 cm [13]. However, as roots grow, soil water below the depth of 200 cm (deep soil water) is consumed gradually for vegetation recovery [14]. Soil desiccation will be caused by excessive consumption of deep soil water, so that there is no available water in the deep soil layer. Thus, the supply of soil water for vegetation recovery will be completely dependent on rainfall, and vegetation recovery will be restricted by climate conditions [15]. Thus, whether the deep soil layer can provide soil water effectively and persistently for vegetation recovery in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region needs to be determined.
Soil desiccation is caused by soil water deficit, and its ultimate form is a dried soil layer in the deep soil layer [16,17]. Presence of deep soil layers negatively affects terrestrial ecosystems by preventing the processes of the water cycle in the soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer system [18], resulting in regional carbon emissions stored in biotic pools by increasing forest flammability and tree mortality [19] and decreasing the productivity of vegetation [20]. Therefore, as an important indicator of soil desiccation, the dried soil layer has received substantial attention in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region.
Recently, there have been large numbers of studies on deep soil water on abandoned slopes in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region, but these studies are mainly targeted on the effects of different land uses on soil water content and deep soil layers, and spatial variation in deep soil water [21,22,23]. However, with vegetation recovery, it is unclear whether deep soil layers can provide soil water for vegetation recovery consistently. Thus, we studied soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer of 168 slopes, including natural abandoned slopes, R. pseudoacacia plantations, and C. korshinskii plantations, with slope croplands as the control, and we explored the characteristics of deep soil water in terms of soil water content and dried soil layers for different vegetation types, slope aspects, and recovery stages. Furthermore, this study can provide a scientific foundation for rehabilitating the capacity of soil water reservoirs by appropriate vegetation configurations to achieve sustainable ecosystems.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

The study was conducted in Ansai County (E 108°51′44″–109°26′18″, N 36°30′45″–37°19′31″), in an area of 2950 km2, at 1010–1731 m above sea level in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region (Figure 1). The county has a warm temperate continental monsoon climate. The average annual precipitation in the area is 550 mm, and 75% of the precipitation falls during the flood season of June–September. Loessial soil is the main soil type in the watershed and is mainly composed of sand (65%), silt (24%), and clay (11%) [24].
Zhangjiahe, Sanwanggou, Zhifanggou, and Xiannangou watersheds were selected from north to south in the county (Figure 1). These watersheds are located in a forest-steppe region. Natural forest is almost absent as a result of long-term human activities that destroyed the natural vegetation and of farms on slope lands [25]. However, the slope cropland was gradually abandoned, and vegetation began to be restored in the past decades, especially since 1999.
A large number of typical slopes were widely distributed in these watersheds and they were selected for the investigation and sampling. As shown in Table 1, natural abandoned slopes (87 slopes), R. pseudoacacia plantations (65 slopes), and C. korshinskii plantations (10 slopes) were selected as the study subjects, and slope croplands (6 slopes) were selected as controls. Natural abandoned slopes, R. pseudoacacia plantations, and slope croplands were divided into sunny natural abandoned slopes (45 slopes), shady natural abandoned slopes (42 slopes), a sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation (33 slopes), a shady R. pseudoacacia plantation (32 slopes), sunny slope croplands (3 slopes), and shady slope croplands (3 slopes). The C. korshinskii plantations were not divided into sunny and shady slopes because they were mainly distributed on top of a hill. According to the years of restoration, the slopes were divided into four groups: 1–10-year stage, 11–20-year stage, 21–30-year stage, and ≥30-year stage (Table 1).

2.2. Soil Water

Soil water content from different slopes was measured in the years of 2003–2007, 2012, 2013, and 2015. The years of 2003–2007, 2013 were high flow years; 2012 was a normal flow year; and 2015 was a low flow year (Figure 2). Deep soil water was not influenced by annual precipitation, generally [13]; however, 2013 was an extreme flow year (Figure 2), and rainfall infiltration depths could reach the 500 cm soil layer and 300 cm soil layer on natural abandoned slopes and tree plantations, respectively [26]. Therefore, we removed the data from 2013 for error reduction, and the data for soil water were used from the years 2003–2007, 2012, and 2015.
Two sampling points were selected on the upper and lower part of each slope, respectively, to measure soil water in July or August. The samples were collected using a soil auger (10 cm in diameter) to a depth of 500 cm and taken at 20 cm intervals. The samples were oven dried at 105 °C for 24 h in the laboratory, and then, the weights of the dried samples were measured. Then, the mass water content was obtained.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Mean soil bulk density was 1.20 g cm−3 on the study slopes, and thus, volumetric water content was calculated through the mass water content and soil bulk density. The soil water content of a slope in the 200–500 cm soil layer was the average of the soil water contents taken at 20 cm intervals in the 200–500 cm soil layer. Then, the mean soil water content could be obtained from natural abandoned slopes, R. pseudoacacia plantations, C. korshinskii plantations, and so on.
According to the definition of dried soil layer, a dried soil layer was present when soil water content was lower than the stable field capacity [27,28]. Field capacities and wilting coefficients were determined through the observation of 27 slopes, including natural abandoned slopes, R. pseudoacacia plantations, C. korshinskii plantations, and slope croplands in the study area. The mean field capacity was 0.19 cm3 cm−3. The mean wilting coefficient was 0.06 cm3 cm−3. The stable field capacity was 0.11 cm3 cm−3, which was calculated based on the field capacity multiplied by 60% [29]. Available soil water storage was calculated as follows:
Aw = (Sw − Wc) × Th
where Aw, Sw, Wc, and Th are available soil water storage (mm), volumetric water content (cm3 cm−3), wilting coefficient (cm3 cm−3), and thickness of soil layer (mm).
Differences in soil water content among the slopes of the studied vegetation types and control slopes were examined with one-way ANOVA. Differences in soil water content among different recovery stages were also examined with one-way ANOVA. The values were transformed using log (x + 1) to meet the homogeneity of variance assumption.

3. Results

3.1. Deep Soil Water in Different Vegetation Types and Slope Aspects

Mean volumetric water content was 0.16, 0.15, 0.10, and 0.07 cm3 cm−3 at a depth of 200–500 cm on slope croplands, natural abandoned slopes, R. pseudoacacia plantations, and C. korshinskii plantations, respectively, and accordingly available soil water storages were 286, 257, 112, and 34 mm, respectively. As shown in Figure 3A, the distribution of water content was 0.06–0.21 cm3 cm−3 on abandoned slopes, and they were 0.09–0.21, 0.06–0.17, and 0.06–0.08 cm3 cm−3 on natural abandoned slopes, R. pseudoacacia plantations, and C. korshinskii plantations, respectively. The water content of R. pseudoacacia plantations and C. korshinskii plantations were significantly lower than that of the others (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in water content between slope croplands and natural abandoned slopes, and between R. pseudoacacia plantations and C. korshinskii plantations (Figure 3A), and there were no significant differences in the water content between sunny and shady slopes on natural abandoned slopes and R. pseudoacacia plantations (Figure 3B,C).

3.2. Deep Soil Water at Different Stages on Natural Abandoned Slopes

As shown in Figure 4, water content did not significantly decrease in the 300–400 cm and 400–500 cm soil layers on sunny slopes, nor in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on shady slopes in comparison to that on slope croplands at the 1–10 years, 11–20 years, 21–30 years, and ≥30-year stages. Water content in the 200–300 cm soil layer during the ≥30-year stage was smaller than that at the 1–10-year stage on sunny slopes (Figure 4A). There were no dried soil layers on the sunny and shady slopes (Figure 5). In addition, the water content of the sunny slopes was significantly lower than that of shady slopes in the 340–500 cm soil layer in the ≥30-year stage (p < 0.05).

3.3. Deep Soil Water at Different Stages on R. pseudoacacia Plantations

Over time, water content decreased significantly at the 11–20-year stage in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers, and soil water content reached its lowest value, which was close or equal to the wilting coefficient, at the ≥30-year stage (Figure 6). The available soil water storages were 0 and 8 mm in the 200–500 cm soil layer at the ≥30-year stage on sunny and shady R. pseudoacacia plantations, respectively. A dried soil layer started to appear at the 11–20-year stage, and it was widespread in the 200–500 cm soil layer (Figure 7).

3.4. Deep Soil Water at Different Stages on C. korshinskii Plantations

As shown in Figure 8, water content was 0.09, 0.08, 0.07, and 0.07 cm3 cm−3 in the 200–500 cm soil layer at the 1–10 years, 11–20 years, 21–30 years, and ≥30-year stages, respectively; there were no significant differences among these values in the 200–500 cm soil layer, and so the variation is in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers. Deep soil water content was significantly smaller than that on slope croplands. A dried soil layer extended through the 200–500 cm soil layer starting in the 1–10-year stage. The water content was close to the wilting coefficient (0.06 cm3 cm−3) at the 11–20 years, 21–30 years, and ≥30-year stages (Figure 9), and the available soil water storages were 102, 47, 39, and 26 mm, respectively.

4. Discussion

4.1. Response of Deep Soil Water to Vegetation Types and Slope Aspects

Vegetation restoration types significantly affected deep soil water in the study. In plant-soil-atmosphere systems, a plant acts as a pathway along which water transfers from the soil to the atmosphere, and its roots play a key role in the development of deep soil water [30]. The plant-soil-environment was in a relatively stable state on the natural abandoned slopes in the study because of nonsignificant differences in soil water content at all of the stages, indicating that low water consumption by the shallow root systems of the natural vegetation occurred in the deep soil layer in the study area. As the planted forests have higher evapotranspiration than precipitation recharge in the study region [7,31] and need to reach a larger water depletion depth [32], R. pseudoacacia plantations and C. korshinskii plantations had smaller soil water content in the deep soil layers in the study. This result was consistent with the results of similar studies [30,33]. As deep soil water cannot be replenished in time [17,26] when the deep soil water is exhausted, vegetation recovery of the R. pseudoacacia plantations and C. korshinskii plantations will be more restricted by climate conditions, especially in low flow years [15]. Thus, the recovery of natural vegetation was independent of deep soil water, and in contrast, deep soil water alleviated the need for artificial vegetation in some cases.
Generally, soil water conditions on shady slopes are better than those on sunny slopes in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region [34]. However, overall, there were no significant differences between the sunny and shady slopes on the natural abandoned slopes and R. pseudoacacia plantations in the study, indicating that the slope aspect was not one of the major factors influencing variations in soil water in the 200–500 cm soil layer in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region. In addition, we noticed another phenomenon; although there were no significant differences in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layers between the sunny and shady natural abandoned slopes, the soil water content of the sunny slopes was significantly lower than that of the shady slopes in the 340–500 cm soil layers at the ≥30-year stage. The B. ischaemum community and A. gmelinii community were the vegetation types at the ≥30-year stage on the sunny and shady natural abandoned slopes, respectively (Table 1). Relevant studies have shown that the depth of depleted soil water under a B. ischaemum community could reach 500 cm in the Loess Plateau, which is much deeper than that of the A. gmelinii community [26,35]. Therefore, the difference in soil water content between the sunny and shady slopes in the 340–500 cm soil layer might result from the difference in soil water depletion depths in B. ischaemum and A. gmelinii communities.

4.2. Sustainability of Deep Soil Water on Natural Abandoned Slopes

With vegetation recovery, deep soil water content did not change significantly, except in the 200–300 cm soil layer on sunny slopes, and there was no soil desiccation at the different stages. These results further showed that deep soil water was stable on the natural abandoned slopes, and natural vegetation was an ideal vegetation type for ecological restoration in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region. Furthermore, the main impact of vegetation recovery on deep soil water content was in the 200–300 cm soil layer, and despite this result, there was no dried soil layer in the soil layer. Yin et al. [26] and Chen et al. [36] noted that the infiltration depth was more than 300 cm under grasslands after storm rainfall with extremely high intensity and a long duration or in high flow years in the study area. Thus, soil water was easily replenished on natural abandoned slopes in the study area, and under the circumstance that soil desiccation did not occur, deep soil water was available for vegetation recovery.

4.3. Sustainability of Deep Soil Water on R. pseudoacacia Plantations

Over time, the soil water content decreased significantly on the R. pseudoacacia plantations in the study. This result was consistent with previous findings [23,37] and further showed that vegetation recovery exacerbated soil desiccation in the deep soil layer. The soil water content has been decreasing significantly since the 11–20-year stage, so it was close to or equal to the wilting coefficient at the ≥30-year stage. The dried soil layer began to be widely distributed in the 200–500 cm soil layer at the 11–20-year stage, showing that deep soil water was consumed, so that soil desiccation started to appear from the 11–20-year stage and resulted in soil desiccation. A deep soil layer would be unable to provide available water for vegetation recovery at the ≥30-year stage, further indicating that almost all of soil water that was used by vegetation was from the shallow soil layer (0–200 cm) in this stage. However, R. pseudoacacia plantations might not obtain enough soil water from the shallow soil layer in this stage because undergrowth vegetation had recovered obviously, while R. pseudoacacia began to degenerate (Table 1), and undergrowth vegetation might have a greater advantage to compete for soil water. A relevant study noted that the stable growth period of R. pseudoacacia is not long, unless soil water is sufficient in the study area [38]. Furthermore, vegetation is a vital and necessary part of ecosystem and its degeneration necessarily leads to series of reactions, such as the descent of soil quality. Thus, deep soil water could not be persistently provided, and soil desiccation limited the recovery of R. pseudoacacia plantations and then hindered sustainable development of R. pseudoacacia plantation in the study.
Given the situation that large tracts of R. pseudoacacia plantations are at the 10–20-year stage currently because of the “Grain for Green Project” that began in 1999, if the R. pseudoacacia plantations were managed in a timely manner to prevent further degradation of deep soil water as part of the “Grain for Green Project”, the soil desiccation of R. pseudoacacia plantations would be controlled effectively. For the R. pseudoacacia plantation at the 21–30 years and ≥30-year stages, undergrowth vegetation covers a large area and can already control soil erosion to some degree [39]; therefore, reasonable thinning might be beneficial to relieve soil desiccation of the deep soil layer. Furthermore, suitable land preparation might be useful to improve deep soil water conditions. For example, a terrace is one of the main soil and water conservation strategies that can collect rainwater, increase water infiltration, and increase reserves of soil water [40]; thus, it might be constructed to remit or improve soil desiccation in the deep soil layer on the R. pseudoacacia plantations in the hill and gully Loess Plateau region.

4.4. Sustainability of Deep Soil Water on C. korshinskii Plantations

The water conditions of the C. korshinskii plantations were poor at every stage. Deep soil water was consumed rapidly during the 1–10-year stage in the study and was close to the wilting coefficient since the 11–20-year stage. Thus, for 21 years, there was no useable deep soil water for vegetation recovery.
As shown in Table 1, the coverage of C. korshinskii decreased since the 21–30-year stage. The table shows that the C. korshinskii plantations began to degenerate. In contrast, with the undergrowth vegetation recovering, the coverage of the undergrowth vegetation (a later succession community, Artemisia gmelinii community) [41] increased and reached 50% (Table 1), which enabled this vegetation to control soil erosion effectively in the study area [39]. A. gmelinii had an advantage in the competition of water absorption with C. korshinskii for the past 21–30 years. Considering the result that the A. gmelinii community did not result in water consumption in the deep soil layer, and with C. korshinskii plantations degenerating and the A. gmelinii community recovering in the later stages, soil desiccation would be ameliorated. Furthermore, appropriate manual intervention, such as cradling or clearing C. korshinskii plantations that have been in existence since 21–30 years ago or building terraces, could accelerate the recovery of soil water in the deep soil layer.

5. Conclusions

Natural vegetation restoration is an appropriate way to achieve sustainable ecosystems in consideration of deep soil water. In contrast, soil desiccation intensified until it was difficult for the vegetation to obtain available water in the deep soil layer on R. pseudoacacia or C. korshinskii plantations. Soil desiccation began to appear at the 11–20-year stage, and it became increasingly severe until the deep soil water was close to the wilting coefficient at the ≥30-year stage on R. pseudoacacia plantations. Deep soil water was rapidly consumed, and soil desiccation began to appear during the 1–10-year stage, and then deep soil water was close to the wilting coefficient at the later stages on C. korshinskii plantations. According to the results, the plantations needed to be managed in a timely manner to prevent or relieve soil desiccation.

Author Contributions

W.Y. and J.J. conceived and designed the experiments; W.Y. performed the experiments and analyzed the data; W.Y. and J.J. wrote the paper.

Funding

The National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2016YFC0501604) and the National Science Foundation of China (No. 41771319; 41371280).

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2016YFC0501604) and the National Science Foundation of China (No. 41771319; 41371280). We also wish to thank anonymous referees for their constructive suggestions and improvements.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Wang, Y.; Fu, B.; Lv, Y.; Chen, L. Effects of vegetation restoration on soilorganic carbon sequestration at multiple scales in semi-arid Loess Plateau, China. CATENA 2011, 85, 58–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Song, B.; Yan, M.; Hou, H.; Guan, J.; Shi, W.; Li, G.; Du, S. Distribution of soil carbon and nitrogen in two typical forests in the semiarid region of the Loess Plateau, China. CATENA 2016, 143, 159–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Zhang, J.; Dong, Y. Factors affecting species diversity of plant communities and the restoration process in the loess area of China. Ecol. Eng. 2010, 36, 345–350. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Chen, L.; Wei, W.; Fu, B.; Lu, Y. Soil and water conservation on the Loess Plateau in China: Review and perspective. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 2007, 31, 389–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Ai, Z.M.; Chen, Y.; Cao, Y. Storage and allocation of carbon and nitrogen in Robinia pseudoacacia plantation at different ages in the loess hilly region, China. J. Appl. Ecol. 2014, 25, 333–341, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  6. Jia, X.; Shao, M.; Zhu, Y.; Luo, Y. Soil moisture decline due to afforestation across the Loess Plateau, China. J. Hydrol. 2017, 546, 113–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Jian, S.; Zhao, C.; Fang, S.; Yu, K. Effects of different vegetation restoration on soil water storage and water balance in the Chinese Loess Plateau. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2015, 206, 85–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Deng, L.; Wang, K.; Shangguan, Z. Long-term natural succession improves nitrogen storage capacity of soil on the Loess Plateau, China. Soil Res. 2014, 52, 262–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Zhu, B.; Li, Z.; Li, P.; Liu, G.; Xue, S. Soil erodibility, microbial biomass, and physical–chemical property changes during long-term natural vegetation restoration: A case study in the Loess Plateau, China. Ecol. Res. 2010, 25, 531–541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Wang, L.; D’Odorico, P.; Evans, J.P.; Eldridge, D.J.; Mccabe, M.F.; Caylor, K.K. Dry land ecohydrology and climate change: Critical issues and technical advances. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2012, 16, 2585–2603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Chen, H.S.; Shao, M.A.; Li, Y.Y. Soil desiccation in the Loess Plateau of China. Geoderma 2008, 143, 91–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Jia, X.; Shao, M.; Zhao, C.; Zhang, C. Spatiotemporal characteristics of soil water storage along regional transect on the Loess Plateau, China. CLEAN Soil Air Water 2017, 45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Li, Y.S. Effects of forest on water circle on the Loess Plateau. J. Nat. Resour. 2001, 16, 427–432, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  14. Cao, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Qu, M.; Cheng, X.; Wang, D. Effects of Robinia pseudoacacia roots on deep soil moisture status. Chin. J. Appl. Ecol. 2006, 17, 765–768, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  15. Li, Y.S. The Properties of water cycle in soil and their effect on water cycle for land in the Loess region. Acta Ecol. Sin. 1983, 3, 91–101, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  16. Gao, X.; Wu, P.; Zhao, X.; Zhang, B.; Wang, J.; Shi, Y. Estimating the spatial means and variability of root-zone soil moisture in gullies using measurements from nearby uplands. J. Hydrol. 2013, 476, 28–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Wang, Y.; Hu, W.; Zhu, Y.; Shao, M.A.; Xiao, S.; Zhang, C. Vertical distribution and temporal stability of soil water in 21-m profiles under different land uses on the Loess Plateau in China. J. Hydrol. 2015, 527, 543–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Chen, H.; Shao, M.; Li, Y. The characteristics of soil water cycle and water balance on steep grassland under natural and simulated rainfall conditions in the Loess Plateau of China. J. Hydrol. 2008, 360, 242–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Nepstad, D.; Lefebvre, P.; Da Silva, U.L.; Tomasella, J.; Schlesinger, P.; Sol´orzano, L.; Moutinho, P.; Ray, D.; Benito, J.G. Amazon drought and its implications for forest flammability and tree growth: A basin-wide analysis. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2004, 10, 704–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Shinoda, M.; Nachinshonhor, G.U.; Nemoto, M. Impact of drought on vegetation dynamics of the Mongolian steppe: A field experiment. J. Arid Environ. 2010, 74, 63–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Li, J.; Chen, B.; Li, X.; Zhao, Y.; Ciren, Y.; Jiang, B.; Hu, W.; Cheng, J.; Shao, M. Effects of deep soil desiccation on artificial forestlands in different vegetation zones on the Loess Plateau of China. Acta. Ecol. Sin. 2008, 28, 1429–1445, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  22. Wang, Y.; Shao, M.; Liu, Z. Large-scale spatial variability of dried soil layers and related factors across the entire Loess Plateau of China. Geoderma 2010, 159, 99–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Wang, Y.; Shao, M.; Liu, Z.; Zhang, C. Characteristics of dried soil layers under apple orchards of different ages and their applications in soil water managements on the loess plateau of China. Pedosphere 2015, 25, 546–554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Li, M.; Zhang, X.; Pang, G.; Han, F. The estimation of soil organic carbon distribution and storage in a small catchment area of the Loess Plateau. CATENA 2013, 101, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Wang, N.; Jiao, J.Y.; Du, H.D.; Wang, D.L.; Jia, Y.F.; Chen, Y. The role of local species pool, soil seed bank and seedling pool in natural vegetation restoration on abandoned slope land. Ecol. Eng. 2013, 52, 28–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Yin, Q.; Jiao, J.; Kou, M. The soil moisture characteristics under different vegetation types after extremely heavy rainfall on the hilly-gullied Loess Plateau. J. Nat. Resour. 2015, 30, 459–469, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  27. Wang, L.; Shao, M.A.; Wang, Q.J.; Jia, Z.K. Review of research on soil desiccation in the Loess Plateau. CSAE 2004, 20, 27–31, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  28. Yang, W.Z.; Tian, J.L. Essential exploration of soil aridization in Loess Plateau. Acta Pedol. Sin. 2004, 41, 1–6, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  29. Zhang, C.; Shao, M.; Wang, Y. Spatial distribution of dried soil layers under different vegetation types at slope scale in loess region. CSAE 2012, 28, 102–108, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  30. Duan, L.; Huang, M.; Li, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, L. Estimation of spatial mean soil water storage using temporal stability at the hill slope scale in black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) stands. CATENA 2017, 56, 51–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Jia, Y.; Shao, M. Dynamics of deep soil moisture in response to vegetational restoration on the Loess Plateau of China. J. Hydrol. 2014, 519, 523–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Wang, Z.; Liu, B.; Liu, G.; Zhang, Y. Soil water depletion depth by planted vegetation on the Loess Plateau. Sci. China Ser. D 2009, 52, 835–842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Duan, L.; Huang, M.; Zhang, L. Differences in hydrological responses for different vegetation types on a steep slope on the Loess Plateau, China. J. Hydrol. 2016, 537, 356–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Wang, L.; Wei, S.; Horton, R.; Shao, M. Effects of vegetation and slope aspect on water budget in the hill and gully region of the Loess Plateau of China. CATENA 2011, 87, 90–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Wang, G.; Liu, G.; Chang, X.; Xu, M. A study on the effect of soil water on vegetation rehabilitation in watershed of loess hilly area. J. Nat. Res. 2002, 17, 339–344, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  36. Chen, H.; Shao, M.; Wang, K. Desiccation of deep soil layer and soil water cycle characteristics on the Loess Plateau. Acta Ecol. Sin. 2005, 25, 2491–2498, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  37. Liu, X.L.; Ma, L.H.; Yang, R.H.; Wu, P.T.; Wang, Y.K. Deep soil water depletion characteristic of Jujube plantation in Loess semiarid region. CSAM 2014, 45, 139–145, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  38. Li, L.; Wang, X.; Shao, M.; Zhao, Y.; Li, X. Simulation of biomass and soil desiccation of Robinia pseudoacacia forestlands on semi-arid and semi-humid regions of China’s Loess Plateau. Chin. J. Plant Ecol. 2010, 3, 330–339, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  39. Jiao, J.; Wang, W.; Li, J. Effective cover rate of woodland and grassland for soil and water conservation. Chin. J. Plant Ecol. 2000, 1, 608–612, (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  40. Wang, L. The Relation between Soil Water Deficiency and Vegetation Growth in Northern Shaanxi Loess Plateau. Ph.D. Thesis, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China, 2002. (In Chinese with English abstract). [Google Scholar]
  41. Jiao, J.; Tzanopoulos, J.; Xofis, P.; Mitchley, J. Factors affecting distribution of vegetation types on abandoned cropland in the hilly-gullied Loess Plateau region of China. Pedosphere 2008, 18, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 10 02287 g001 550
Figure 1. Location of the study site.
Figure 1. Location of the study site.
Sustainability 10 02287 g001
Sustainability 10 02287 g002 550
Figure 2. Annual precipitation in 2003–2007, 2012, 2013, and 2015.
Figure 2. Annual precipitation in 2003–2007, 2012, 2013, and 2015.
Sustainability 10 02287 g002
Sustainability 10 02287 g003 550
Figure 3. Soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on different vegetation types (A), and on natural abandoned slopes (B) and R. pseudoacacia plantations (C) with slope aspects. Note: different letters denote significant differences at the 0.05 level among different sample types. SCL, NAS, RPP, CKP, SuA, ShA, SuR, and ShR indicate slope cropland, natural abandoned slope, R. pseudoacacia plantation, C. korshinskii plantation, sunny natural abandoned slope, shady natural abandoned slope, sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation, and shady R. pseudoacacia plantation, respectively. The median is indicated by the horizontal line in the boxes, and solid boxes include the first and third quartiles. Whiskers extend to farthest points that are not outliers.
Figure 3. Soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on different vegetation types (A), and on natural abandoned slopes (B) and R. pseudoacacia plantations (C) with slope aspects. Note: different letters denote significant differences at the 0.05 level among different sample types. SCL, NAS, RPP, CKP, SuA, ShA, SuR, and ShR indicate slope cropland, natural abandoned slope, R. pseudoacacia plantation, C. korshinskii plantation, sunny natural abandoned slope, shady natural abandoned slope, sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation, and shady R. pseudoacacia plantation, respectively. The median is indicated by the horizontal line in the boxes, and solid boxes include the first and third quartiles. Whiskers extend to farthest points that are not outliers.
Sustainability 10 02287 g003
Sustainability 10 02287 g004 550
Figure 4. Soil water content in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on sunny (A) and shady (B) natural abandoned slopes. SCL, SuA, and ShA indicate slope cropland, sunny natural abandoned slope, and shady natural abandoned slope, respectively. The different letter in the same soil layer indicates a significant difference among different recovery stages at the 0.05 level.
Figure 4. Soil water content in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on sunny (A) and shady (B) natural abandoned slopes. SCL, SuA, and ShA indicate slope cropland, sunny natural abandoned slope, and shady natural abandoned slope, respectively. The different letter in the same soil layer indicates a significant difference among different recovery stages at the 0.05 level.
Sustainability 10 02287 g004
Sustainability 10 02287 g005 550
Figure 5. Vertical variation in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on sunny (A) and shady (B) natural abandoned slopes. SCL, SuA, and ShA indicate slope cropland, sunny natural abandoned slope and shady natural abandoned slope, respectively.
Figure 5. Vertical variation in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on sunny (A) and shady (B) natural abandoned slopes. SCL, SuA, and ShA indicate slope cropland, sunny natural abandoned slope and shady natural abandoned slope, respectively.
Sustainability 10 02287 g005
Sustainability 10 02287 g006 550
Figure 6. Soil water content in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on sunny (A) and shady (B) R. pseudoacacia plantations. SCL, SuR, and ShR indicate slope cropland, sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation, and shady R. pseudoacacia plantation, respectively. A different letter in the same soil layer indicates a significant difference among the different recovery stages at the 0.05 level.
Figure 6. Soil water content in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on sunny (A) and shady (B) R. pseudoacacia plantations. SCL, SuR, and ShR indicate slope cropland, sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation, and shady R. pseudoacacia plantation, respectively. A different letter in the same soil layer indicates a significant difference among the different recovery stages at the 0.05 level.
Sustainability 10 02287 g006
Sustainability 10 02287 g007 550
Figure 7. Vertical variation in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on sunny (A) and shady (B) R. pseudoacacia plantations. SCL, SuR, and ShR indicate slope cropland, sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation, and shady R. pseudoacacia plantation, respectively.
Figure 7. Vertical variation in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on sunny (A) and shady (B) R. pseudoacacia plantations. SCL, SuR, and ShR indicate slope cropland, sunny R. pseudoacacia plantation, and shady R. pseudoacacia plantation, respectively.
Sustainability 10 02287 g007
Sustainability 10 02287 g008 550
Figure 8. Soil water content in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on C. korshinskii plantations. SCL indicates slope cropland. A different letter in the same soil layer indicates a significant difference among different recovery stages at the 0.05 level.
Figure 8. Soil water content in the 200–300 cm, 300–400 cm, and 400–500 cm soil layers on C. korshinskii plantations. SCL indicates slope cropland. A different letter in the same soil layer indicates a significant difference among different recovery stages at the 0.05 level.
Sustainability 10 02287 g008
Sustainability 10 02287 g009 550
Figure 9. Vertical variation in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on C. korshinskii plantations. SCL indicates slope cropland.
Figure 9. Vertical variation in soil water content in the 200–500 cm soil layer on C. korshinskii plantations. SCL indicates slope cropland.
Sustainability 10 02287 g009
Table
Table 1. General information of slopes.
Table 1. General information of slopes.
Recovery StageNumber of Slope (°)Canopy Density (%)Coverage of Natural Vegetation (%)Community
SunnyShadySunnyShadySunnyShadySunnyShady
CKSlope cropland33 00Zea mays or Solanum tuberosumZea mays
NAS1–10 years1015 3031Artemisia scoparia or Aneurolepidium dasystachy or Lespedeza davuricaArtemisia scoparia or Aneurolepidium dasystachy or Lespedeza davurica or Artemisia gmelinii
11–20 years2922 4039Lespedeza davurica or Stipa bungeana or Bothriochloa ischaemum or Artemisia gmeliniiAneurolepidium dasystachy or Stipa bungeana or Bothriochloa ischaemum
21–30 years33 6444Bothriochloa ischaemumStipa bungeana or Artemisia gmelinii
≥30 years32 7563Bothriochloa ischaemumArtemisia gmelinii
RPP1–10 years5510103222Artemisia scoparia or Ruta graveolens or Stipa bungeanaArtemisia scoparia
11–20 years201752351436Artemisia gmelinii or Lespedeza davuricaArtemisia gmelinii or Stipa bungeana
21–30 years6655633964Artemisia gmelinii or Lespedeza davurica or Bothriochloa ischaemumArtemisia gmelinii
≥30 years2442485147Stipa bungeana or Ruta graveolensRubus corchorifolius
CKP1–10 years25818Aneurolepidium dasystachy or Stipa bungeana
11–20 years27020Artemisia gmelinii
21–30 years44642Artemisia gmelinii
≥30 years23450Artemisia gmelinii
Note: CK, NAS, RPP, CKP indicate control slope, natural abandoned slope, R. pseudoacacia plantation and C. korshinskii plantation, respectively.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Yu, W.; Jiao, J. Sustainability of Abandoned Slopes in the Hill and Gully Loess Plateau Region Considering Deep Soil Water. Sustainability 2018, 10, 2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072287

AMA Style

Yu W, Jiao J. Sustainability of Abandoned Slopes in the Hill and Gully Loess Plateau Region Considering Deep Soil Water. Sustainability. 2018; 10(7):2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072287

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yu, Weijie, and Juying Jiao. 2018. "Sustainability of Abandoned Slopes in the Hill and Gully Loess Plateau Region Considering Deep Soil Water" Sustainability 10, no. 7: 2287. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072287

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop