1. Introduction
Hydrogels are incipient three-dimensional (3D) networking structures that are able to swell in aqueous or non-aqueous fluids without dissolving. The hydrogels have been used in tissue engineering, drug release, material separation, and artificial organs, due to their excellent flexibility, high moisture content, and outstanding viscoelasticity [
1]. Various hydrogels have been fabricated from synthetic and/or natural polymers with an emphasis on regenerative medicine, drug delivery, and tissue adhesives [
2]. Such developed hydrogels are able to mimic the native extracellular matrix (ECM) and support cellular growth and tissue regeneration [
3]. Besides, hydrogels are used in cell-matrix, 3D culturing cell-cell interactions, cellular proliferation, differentiation, and migration [
4,
5]. In this regard, naturally occurring biopolymers comprising hydrogels have potential advantages over synthetic polymers, including low cost, good cytocompatibility, less immunogenicity, degradability in physiological conditions, and wide availability [
6]. Thus, several hydrogels developed from alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, fibrinogen, collagen, and zein have been reported [
7,
8,
9,
10,
11,
12]. Consequently, it is vital to fabricate plant protein-derived hydrogels for biomedical applications. Zein is a natural plant protein and extracted from corn. Zein is hydrophobic and water-insoluble due to lack of prolamin [
13,
14,
15,
16]. Zein protein has been used in drug delivery, food packaging, and coatings [
15,
17]. However, there are some issues, such as shrinkage in water, low mechanical strength, and rapid degradation that impede the biomedical applications of pure zein. Therefore, several chemical modification and physical treatments have been developed to improve the mechanical strength, water-resistance, and plasticity of zein protein [
18,
19,
20,
21,
22]. Moreover, zein was covalently functionalized with gold nanoparticles, polycaprolactone (PCL), and 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane to improve mechanical and degradability, respectively [
23,
24,
25]. In order to improve the above properties of zein, poly 4-mercaptophenyl methacrylate-carbon nano-onions were incorporated within zein protein to fabricate zein/f-CNOs composite hydrogels.
Carbon-nano-onions (CNOs) are a class of carbon nanomaterials that contain concentric graphitic shells and are described by Ugarte in 1992 [
26]. CNOs have been widely used in catalysis, supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, cell imaging, and diagnostic, therapeutic, and other biomedical applications because of their good physicochemical properties [
27,
28,
29,
30,
31,
32]. Among different carbon nanomaterials, CNOs are the most promising carbon material for biomedical applications because of their tolerance to transport in the circulatory systems with negligible toxicity and good cytocompatibility [
31]. Moreover, several studies demonstrated that CNOs are highly biocompatible compared to MWCNTs, and CNOs showed less inflammation than CNTs [
32]. Pristine CNOs, oxidized CNOs, and PEGylated CNOs are nontoxic and presented more than 85% of cell viability with fibroblasts [
33]. Recently, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene/4-mercaptophenyl methacrylate functionalized carbon nano-onions (UHMWPE/f-CNOs) nanocomposites were developed [
34]. The mechanical, cytocompatibile, and thermal properties of the UHMWPE were significantly enhanced in the presence of 0.1 wt% of functionalized CNOs [
34]. These outstanding results of f-CNOs motivated us to design and fabricate f-CNOs incorporated zein/f-CNOs hydrogels. Thus, it is of great interest to explore the application of CNOs as a second phase reinforcement in the fabrication of novel hydrogels.
The proper synthetic route of nanomaterials is essential in biomedical application, where the sonochemical method offers an easy path of synthesis. Sonochemistry is an emerging synthetic method to fabricate nanomaterials. Sonochemistry is a simple, facile, and short-time physicochemical method liable to the high-intensity ultrasound and acoustic cavitation phenomenon [
35,
36]. A sonochemical method has been used to develop several nanomaterials with an emphasis on controlled drug delivery [
37,
38]. Nonetheless, to the best of our knowledge, the fabrication of plant protein (zein)/f-CNOs composite hydrogels have not yet been established, until now, for controlled drug release. Thus, it is hypothesized that f-CNOs can uniformly disperse and reinforce within the zein matrix by sonochemical method. The homogeneous dispersion of CNOs not only improves the mechanical properties of zein/f-CNOs composite hydrogels but also enhances biodegradability, swelling, drug release, and cytocompatibility.
The aim of the current study is to fabricate poly 4-mercaptophenyl methacrylated CNOs loaded zein protein hydrogels using acoustic cavitation technique. Besides, we will investigate the physicochemical properties, mechanical properties, drug release under physiological conditions, and cytocompatibility of hydrogels.
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Materials and Methods
All the reagents and organic solvents were purchased from commercial suppliers and used without further purification. Zein protein, methacryloyl chloride (MA), N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS), 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC), 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), glutaraldehyde (GA), and 2,2′-Azobis(2-methylpropionitrile) (AIBN) were procured from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA.). Osteoblast cells were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA, USA.). Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium/F12 without phenol red (DMEM/F12), phosphate buffered saline (PBS) pH 7.4, fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin/streptomycin, and trypsin were acquired from Gibco Invitrogen (Camarillo, CA, USA.). CellTiter96®AQueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay was bought from Promega, (Fitchburg, WI, USA.). LIVE/DEAD Cell Imaging Kit was purchased from Molecular Probes, Life Technologies Corp. (Carlsbad, CA, U.S.A.).
2.2. Synthesis
2.2.1. Preparation of Composite Hydrogels
The synthesis of poly 4-mercaptophenyl methacrylated-CNOs was accomplished according to the previous report [
34].
Synthesis of CNOs-MP
Briefly, 100 mg of pristine carbon nano-onions were dispersed in 50 mL of anhydrous DMF for 30 min using an ultrasonic bath. Then, 350 mg of N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) and 350 mg 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) were added to the dispersion solution and further sonicated for 30 min. After that, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC, 570 mg) was added and sonicated for 30 min. Next, 100 mg of 4-mercaptophenol (MP) was added and stirring was continued for 48 h at 60 °C under N2. After the completion of the reaction (monitored thin layer chromatography), the stirring was stopped and the reaction mixture was cooled to ambient temperature. Next, the supernatant was discarded using centrifugation. The resulting black solid was thoroughly washed with DMF, methanol, DMF/triethylamine (9.9: 01), and ethyl acetate to obtain 4-mercaptophenylated CNOs (CNOs-MP).
Synthesis of CNOs-PMPMA
The mixture of 50 mg of CNOs-MP and 1.0 mL of diisopropylethylamine was dispersed in 50 mL of anhydrous tetrahydrofuran (THF) for 30 min using an ultrasonic bath. Then, 1.0 mL of methacryloyl chloride (MA) was added to the above mixture and stirred at room temperature for 24 h. Subsequently, the supernatant was discarded using centrifugation to attain a black solid. The resulted black solid was washed thoroughly with THF, dichloromethane, and HCl (0.01 M aqueous) to provide monomer CNOs-MPMA as a black solid. Then, 50 mg of CNOs-MPMA and azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN, 1 wt%) were dissolved in 20 mL of anhydrous THF and sonicated for 30 min. Next, the reaction mixture was stirred at 70 °C for 48 h. Subsequently, the reaction mixture was cooled to ambient temperature and the supernatant was removed by centrifugation to attain CNOs-PMPMA as a black solid. The solid was washed with dichloromethane and diethyl ether and vacuum dried and stored in a desiccator until further use. The functionalized CNOs-PMPMA (f-CNOs) were characterized using 1H-NMR, Raman, TGA, and GPC analysis.
In order to prepare zein/f-CNOs hydrogels, initially, 2 mg/mL of f-CNOs was ultrasonicated for 30 min in water/1,4-dioxane (1:1) to obtain the homogenous dispersion. Then, 1.0 g of zein protein (in 10 mL of water/1,4-dioxane; 1:1) was added into the f-CNOs solution. The resulting reaction mixture was treated with GA (1%,
w/
w) as a crosslinking agent under three different reaction conditions as showed in the
Table 1.
To prepare the drug-loaded hydrogels, 10 mg/mL of 5-FU was added to the above solutions before the addition of crosslinker to incorporate the drug within the polymer matrix. This could prevent the surface drug loading, burst release, and aid the sustained release.
2.3. Characterizations of Composite Hydrogels
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, ZEISS EVO®MA 25, Ostalbkreis, Baden-Württemberg, Germany) was used to study the surface morphological properties of composite hydrogels. For this, all the hydrogel samples were flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen and then fractured. Prior to the SEM analysis, the cross-sections of the freeze-dried hydrogel specimens were gold coated. Tensile strength and elongation at break testing were measured to evaluate the mechanical properties of composite hydrogels samples. A tensile testing machine (Instron 3365, Instron, and Norwood, MA, USA.) was used to measure the tensile properties of specimens. The size of the hydrogel sample was 33.0 mm × 6.0 mm × 2.0 mm, and the crosshead speed was 50 mm/min.
To get the information about the functional groups presented in the hydrogel structure, the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy (Perkin Elmer Universal ATR Sampling Accessory Frontier, Waltham, MA, USA) was used to scrutinize the zein/f-CNOs composite hydrogel specimens in the wavenumber range of 400–4000 cm−1 at room temperature.
2.3.1. Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Zeta-Potential Experiments
DLS measurements were recorded using the Malvern Nano-ZS instrument and the data analyzed by Zetasizer software (version 7.12), Malvern Instruments Ltd., Worcestershire, WR14 1XZ, United Kingdom. 500 μg/mL of f-CNOs were probe sonicated in water and DMEM cell medium for 60 min. Then, the final concentration (500 μg/mL) of f-CNOs was diluted into 50, 25, 5, and 1 μg/mL in water and DMEM cell medium to measure the size of the particles. The dispensable zeta potential cuvettes were used to record the Zeta potential measurements. All the zeta measurements were run in triplicate per each sample and averaged to attain the final results.
2.3.2. Swelling of Hydrogels
Swelling ratio measurements of hydrogels were recorded by gravimetrically on a definite amount of dried hydrogel samples. Initially, the freeze-dried and pre-weighed hydrogel samples were immersed in DMEM (pH 7.4) at predetermined time intervals.
The swollen hydrogels were drawn from DMEM and the non-adsorbed medium was soaked mildly with filter paper and weighed with a microbalance. The swelling ratio (SR) was measured using the following equation:
where
Ws is the weight of hydrogels at equilibrium state and
Wd is the weight of the hydrogels at the dry state. The swelling rate of the composite hydrogels was calculated according to the following equation
where
t1 and
t2 were the mean of the swelling time, and
Wt1 and
Wt2 were the weight of the sample at
t1 and
t2, and
Wd was the weight of dried hydrogels.
2.3.3. In Vitro Degradation of Hydrogels
In vitro degradation of hydrogels was measured with respect to weight loss. For this, initially weighed hydrogel specimens (W0) were immersed in DMEM (pH 7.4) medium and incubated at 37 °C for 25 days. Then, the samples were taken out from the medium at predetermined time intervals, washed and dried in the desiccator for 12 h and weighed (Wt). The weight loss ratio calculated as . The weight remaining ratio was calculated as .
2.3.4. In Vitro Drug Release from Hydrogels
UV-spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies, 89090A) was used to measure the 5-FU release from the hydrogel specimens. For this, 30 mg of 5-FU-loaded hydrogel samples were immersed in 10 mL of DMEM (pH 2.0, 4.5, 7.4, and 9.0) and gently incubated at 37 °C. At predetermined time intervals, 2 mL of 5-FU released medium was collected and replaced with 2 mL of fresh DMEM medium to maintain the solution volume constant. The drug release was determined at λ
max = 265 nm to attain 5-FU concentration. The 5-FU release from hydrogel samples against time intervals was established. The pH-values (pH 2.0, 4.5, 7.4, and 9.0) of DMEM medium was adjusted with 1 M HCl or 1 M NaOH. Triplicate measurements were carried out. The drug release (%) was calculated from the following formula:
2.3.5. Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Composite Hydrogels
The human osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) were used to evaluate in vitro cytocompatibility of hydrogels. For this, osteoblast cells were cultured on the surface of the hydrogel samples. Cell viability and morphology were also studied.
Cell Viability of Hydrogels
Cell viability was measured using CellTiter96®AQueous One Solution Cell Proliferation Assay. Initially, disk-shaped (~6.3 mm in diameter) hydrogels were prepared and then cut into thin sections and these hydrogel specimens were sterilized by ethanol (70% v/v) followed by UV irradiation. After that, the sterilized hydrogel specimens were decorated on a 96-well plate and then, human fetal osteoblastic cells (hFOB 1.19) at a density of 1 × 104 cells per well (~3.12 × 104 cells/cm−2) were seeded over the hydrogels. The non-adherent cells were removed on the next day. The cell number was calculated after 1, 2, and 3 days post-seeding, using CellTiter96®. Furthermore, the LIVE/DEAD Cell Staining Kit was used to measure the cell viability of hydrogels and the images were recorded using fluorescence microscopy. The tissue culture plate was used as a control in 96-well plates. The experiments were run in triplicate.
Morphological Evaluations of Osteoblasts on Hydrogels
Prior to cell seeding on 24-well plates, hydrogels were cut into a disk shape. After that, human fetal osteoblastic cells (hFOB 1.19) at a density of 1 × 104 cells/mL were seeded on the surface of hydrogels in DMEM/F12 medium supplemented with 0.3 mg/mL of G418 disulfate salt, 2.5 mM of L-glutamine, 1% of penicillin/streptomycin and 10% of fetal bovine serum. The cells were incubated for 24 h in a humidified atmosphere at 5% CO2. Then, the medium was transferred from the well plates and washed several times with phosphate buffer solution. After 3 days of incubation, cell images were recorded by an optical microscope (Model IN200A-5M, Amscope, Chino, CA, USA).
2.4. Statistical Analysis
All the experiments were carried out in triplicate and quantitative data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) with n = 3. Statistical analysis was determined by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post hoc tests using Minitab17 (Minitab, State College, PA, USA). p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
4. Discussion
The homogeneous colloidal dispersion measurements suggested that the functionalized CNOs could stabilize in the aqueous environment. The acoustic cavitation wave or acoustic cavitation is the superlative stringent source of exfoliation of 2D nanomaterials. The fluctuation of pressure in the liquid environment generates the acoustic cavitation that creates bubble growth followed by bubble collapse and finally internal turbulence. This ultrasound energy renovates into high temperature and pressure. Ultrasound waves transfer through carbon nanoparticles (CNOs) which are held by weak interactions, including the Van der Waals forces and/or π–π stacking. Thus, acoustic cavitation is a good choice to achieve the uniform dispersion and stability of CNOs in the aqueous environment. Colloidal stable CNOs produced by acoustic cavitation are effective to enhance the electrical, tensile, and biocompatible assets of the nanocomposites. Consequently, uniformly dispersed and colloidal stabilized f-CNOs were reinforced with zein and fabricated zein/f-CNOs hydrogel composite through the acoustic cavitation method. Thus, the positive and negative ξ-potential values described the proton exchange phenomenon between the polar groups present on the surface of CNOs and the solvent system. When COOH-CNOs were dispersed in DMEM and water, CNOs groups were able to donate protons to the medium, exhibiting the negative ξ-potential values. On the other hand, chemically conjugated CNOs (f-CNOs) were unable to offer protons to the medium, switching the ξ-potential to positive values. The SEM analysis of UZCNOs hydrogel exhibited a sponge-like structure with porous morphology.
All these absorption bands of pristine zein were altered in the FTIR spectrum of UZCNOs hydrogel composite, suggesting that there were hydrophobic interactions or π-π stacking between the zein protein and f-CNOs. Thus, UZCNOs hydrogel composite showed a peak at 1665 cm−1 for C=O stretching vibration and amide-I, whereas, 1525 cm−1 for amide II and the C–N bond, respectively. Likewise, the N–H bending and C–N stretching peaks of UZCNOs hydrogel were shifted to a higher frequency range, which reveals that f-CNOs were completely blended within the hydrogel matrix. Thus, FTIR spectra show physicochemical interactions between zein protein and f-CNOs. The tensile results suggest that the UZCNOs hydrogel produced by acoustic cavitation has exhibited approximately seven times higher tensile strength than CZCNOs hydrogel produced by a conventional stirring method. Accordingly, the mechanical measurements reveal that the hydrogel fabrication method could be critical to obtaining enhanced tensile properties.
The percentage of the swelling ratio of the CZCNOs hydrogel synthesized by the traditional stirring method was significantly lower than UZCNOs and MZCNOs (
Figure 5a). This could be due to the difference in crosslinking density. By comparing the swelling results from
Figure 5a, it can be revealed that the swelling ratio of CZCNOs hydrogel was remarkably lower than MZCNOs and UZCNOs hydrogels, which indicates that the crosslinking density was higher for hydrogels fabricated by radiation and acoustic cavitation. The UZCNOs hydrogels showed the lowest degradation in 25 days of incubation. This could be due to the existence of moderate electrostatic interactions and the difference in crosslinking density under the microwave method. Overall, the fabrication method had a considerable impact on the degradation measurements.
The UZCNOs hydrogels exhibited higher drug release than MZCNOs and CZCNOs hydrogels at pH 2.0 and 4.5. This could be due to the π-π stacking and Van der Waal forces between hydrogels and 5-FU. These characteristics might have slowed the diffusion rate of 5-FU from the composite hydrogels. Besides, it is hypothesized that the solubility and diffusion of 5-FU dawdled in the presence of f-CNOs. Moreover, the fabrication method, lower swelling ratio, and mobility of f-CNOs played a key role in the drug release measurements. In addition, UZCNOs hydrogel showed improved drug release (97%) at pH 7.4. We relate this to the high swelling ratio of the hydrogels at pH 7.4. Furthermore, the 5-FU release rate is significantly proportional to the swelling behavior of the hydrogel network. Whereas at pH 9.0 we did not see a significant improvement in the drug release of MZCNOs and CZCNOs specimens by increasing from pH 7.4 to pH 9.0, however, the UZCNOs hydrogel sample exhibited burst release followed by sustained drug release up to 15 days of study. It could be due to the hydrophilic nature of 5-FU within the gel matrix, which led to faster diffusion from the hydrogel into the medium.
The drug release results at pH 7.4 and 9.0 are attributed to π–π stacking of 5-FU molecules on the surface of composite hydrogels. 5-FU is a chemotherapeutic agent and is used clinically for colorectal carcinoma and there is a great need for colon-specific controlled delivery systems to treat directly at a disease site in the colon [
39]. The results of in vitro 5-FU release from zein/f-CNOs suggest that the UZCNOs could be a prospective pH-sensitive transporter for colon-specific drug delivery. It is well known that the natural pH environment of the gastrointestinal tract differs from acidic (stomach) to slightly basic (intestinal). Particularly, the gastrointestinal tract increases its pH environment from the stomach (pH 1.4–3.0) to the terminal ileum (pH 7.5 ± 0.5). Such pH environment decreases to 6.4 ± 0.6 at the beginning of the colon, which slightly rises to pH 6.6 ± 0.8 in the middle of the colon and reaches 7.0 ± 0.7 in the left colon [
40]. Therefore, it is important to consider the pH environment of the gastrointestinal tract while designing peroral dosage forms. The pH-responsive release of 5-FU from the UZCNOs hydrogels could indicate that zein/f-CNOs composite has an admirable protective effect for the oral delivery system of peptides and other drugs, which are easily ruined by gastric acid. Thus, the loaded drug can be released in a lesser amount from the hydrogel as it travels through the stomach. After reaching the colon, a significant amount of drug retained in the gel matrix could be released from the hydrogel.
Besides, UZCNOs hydrogels displayed higher cell viability (p < 0.05) than MZCNOs and CZCNOs hydrogels. This could be due to the enhanced tensile strength, lower degradation, higher hydrophobicity, and crosslinking density of UZCNOs hydrogel synthesized by acoustic cavitation method. The cell viability results revealed that the percentage of cell viability was dependent on the fabrication method of hydrogels. Moreover, cell viability suggests that UZCNOs composite hydrogels would useful as potential drug transporters with good cytocompatibility.
The LIVE/DEAD results suggest that the cell growth was considerably enhanced with f-CNOs inclusion and cells were extensively attached on the surface of the composite hydrogels. This could be due to the excellent cytocompatibility behavior and less degradability of f-CNOs. Overall, UZCNOs hydrogels exhibited better cell growth than a controller, MZCNOs, and CZCNOs samples. The LIVE/DEAD measurements also suggest a positive effect of f-CNOs on the osteoblast cells. Moreover, spherical cellular morphology was also observed on the surface of the hydrogels due to a contact angle with the cell medium, surface morphology, and surface chemical interactions of cells with hydrogels. In addition, it is also posited that the homogeneous colloidal dispersion of f-CNOs within the hydrogel matrix and wrapping with zein produced strengthened zein/f-CNOs hydrogels with amenable cytocompatibility. Nonetheless, improved mechanical strength, admiral cytocompatibility, the pH-responsive sustained drug release, and good pH-sensitivity of UZCNOs hydrogels can be useful as potential drug transporters for oral colon delivery systems and cartilage tissue engineering.