1. Introduction
Due to its large torque and good economic performance, diesel engines are widely used and have become a significant source of power. They facilitate people’s lives and brings huge economic benefits, but at the same time diesel engines also cause certain damage to the environment. Nitrogen oxides (NOx), as one of the harmful emissions of diesel engines, are driven by the following factors: combustion temperature, high temperature duration, oxygen concentration during combustion, of which the maximum combustion temperature is the most critical factor, if the maximum combustion temperature is reduced, then NOx emissions will decline [
1]. As environmental protection becomes one of the important themes around the world, many countries have enacted increasingly stringent fuel consumption regulations. In early December 2020, the UK government announced a new target to tackle climate change by reducing the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions by 68% over ten years, from 1990 levels. Meanwhile, with the increasing depletion of oil resources in the world today, using replaceable renewable energy sources has become one of the main directions in the development of internal combustion engines. The world energy structure is gradually diversifying from a single type of energy due to the increasing scarcity of primary energy sources and the growing demand for them, as well as the growing awareness of energy and environmental conservation. It is therefore an urgent responsibility to overcome the current challenges facing diesel engines and to develop high efficiency, low emission, environmentally friendly engines to meet the growing demands of society [
2].
Miller cycle can reduce the temperature and pressure at the end of the compression stroke, so that the combustion temperature and pressure in the cylinder are reduced, which is conducive to reducing NOx emissions on the one hand and can also reduce the thermal load and mechanical load on the diesel engine [
3]. Traditional internal combustion (IC) engines generally use the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle. In 1947, Ralph H Miller proposed a new engine cycle, the Miller cycle [
4]. The purpose of the Miller cycle is to reduce the effective compression ratio of the engine by changing the closing time of the valve, which can affect the effective compression ratio of the cylinder during the entire combustion process and maximize the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy during the expansion stroke [
4]. Achieving the effect that the expansion ratio is greater than the compression ratio can reduce the thermal load and mechanical load of the engine, obtain higher specific power output and lower fuel consumption, as well as achieve the purpose of reducing combustion temperature and exhaust gas temperature, thereby controlling NOx emissions [
4].
There are two main operation methods to achieve the application of the Miller cycle on the engine: (1) The intake valve is closed before the end of the intake stroke (the piston reaches the bottom dead center), which is called early intake valve closing (EIVC, shown in
Figure 1); (2) Close the intake valve after the start of the compression stroke, keep the intake valve open during the partial compression stroke, so that part of the mixed gas in the cylinder is discharged, and then close the intake valve, which is called late intake valve closing (LIVC, as shown in
Figure 2) [
5].
Figure 1 [
5,
6] is the P-V diagram of the standard Dual cycle (also called Diesel cycle) of the engine and the Miller cycle EIVC version, while
Figure 2 [
6] is a version of the Miller cycle LIVC. In these two figures, 0 is the starting point of work. The pressure in the cylinder is
P0, the volume is V0, and the standard Dual cycle cylinder displacement is
Vc, and the Miller cycle cylinder displacement is
V′c. The Dual cycle work process is: 0-1 is the intake stroke, 1-2 is the compression stroke, the expansion stroke is 2-3-3′-4, and the exhaust stroke is 4-1-0. In this cycle, the compression and expansion ratios of the engine are equal. The Miller cycle EIVC version is the green line cycle, which is 0-1a-1′a-2a-3a- 3′a-4a-1-0 [
6]. The working process of LIVC version is: 0-1a- 1-1a-2-3-3′-4-4a-1-1a-0 (process 1-1a is an additional mixed gas discharge process), as shown in
Figure 2 [
5]. Therefore, in the Miller cycle, due to the advance or delayed closing of the intake valve, there will be part of the gas that has entered the cylinder is expelled, leading to a shorter effective compression stroke, and a smaller effective compression ratio, the result is that the compression ratio is not equal to the expansion ratio. This is the main difference between the Miller cycle and the diesel cycle.
Although the Miller cycle has advantages in energy saving and emission reduction, it has not been widely used since it was proposed. Because the Miller cycle reduces the mixed gas entering the cylinder, the resulting decrease in the output torque will weaken the engine performance (especially in the case of medium and low speed operation). In recent years, as turbocharger and variable valve control (VVC) technology has become more sophisticated, the Miller cycle has regained the attention of scholars and researchers. Turbocharger systems can supplement the intake air volume of the engine and compensate for the shortcomings of the Miller cycle. Turbocharger technology utilizes exhaust gases to drive the turbine, which drives the compressor through the driveshaft, increasing the air intake to the engine, thereby improving the power and economy of the engine [
7].
During the past years, more and more strict requirements for exhaust emissions have led to the gradual attention to the alternative fuel for diesel engines. Natural gas, biodiesel, liquefied petroleum gas, hydrogen and alcohol fuels are the dominant alternative energy sources at present [
8]. As a self-oxygenating fuel, ethanol can increase the concentration of oxygen in the combustion reaction, resulting in more efficient combustion. Moreover, fuel ethanol can meet net zero emission requirements. The reason for this is that in the whole ecosystem, the process of ethanol production and consumption can become a pollution free closed-circuit cycle. Fuel ethanol can be obtained from a wide range of sources—grain and various plant fibres can be processed to generate fuel ethanol, and the CO
2 from the combustion of ethanol can be reabsorbed by plants, making ethanol an inexhaustible source of renewable energy that is very friendly to the environment [
9]. Moreover, ethanol is a very popular biofuel with high octane number, high latent heat of evaporation and low calorific value. Concurrently, ethanol can reduce the intake temperature and maximum combustion temperature of the engine, thus reducing NOx emissions. There has been a long history of alcohol-based fuels powering internal combustion engines, with American Henry Ford designing and manufacturing the world’s first vehicle powered by ethanol in 1909. However, ethanol burning forms compounds, such as acetic acid, that corrode metals and can cause wear and tear on engines. Currently, ethanol is used in engines mainly as a fuel blend, which means that fuel ethanol is added to petrol or diesel to make a blend that is then used in the engine. If pure ethanol is used as a fuel, the necessary changes need to be made to the conventional engine. For example, the compression ratio is increased to take full advantage of the high-octane rating of ethanol. When the compression ratio is increased, it is advisable to use cold spark plugs. In addition to this, the fuel supply capacity of the pump should be increased to avoid air resistance, an additional fuel supply system should be used to improve cold starting, the fuel tank should be increased to ensure the necessary range and the corrosion resistance of the parts concerned should be improved. Moreover, when burning pure ethanol fuel in a diesel engine, the problem of a stable ignition has to be solved. This can be solved by adding a fire improver to the diesel engine, which does not require major changes to the structure of the diesel engine and is a convenient way to switch to diesel fuel at any time. Commonly used additives are cyclohexyl nitrate, triethyl ammonium nitrate, isopropyl nitrate, etc. So far, many countries have started using ethanol. For example, the United States and Brazil were the first countries to add ethanol to gasoline and use it as fuel for car engines, and India is stepping up research into adding ethanol to gasoline or diesel engines. It is clear that ethanol is already being emphasized as a clean fuel.
In the meantime, hydrogen is also a promising alternative energy source. Since the mid to late 20th century, research on hydrogen-fueled engines has gradually emerged in countries, such as the USA, Germany, Japan, and Russia, and continues to this day [
10]. Hydrogen can be obtained by electrolysis of water from renewable sources such as solar, tidal and wind energy, which can be regenerated, and the substance formed by the complete combustion of hydrogen is water vapor, resulting in reuse and net zero carbon emissions, making it a highly promising fuel. It is also a green fuel and very environmentally friendly as it produces very little exhaust gas, no CO, HC or soot emissions. In addition to this, the hydrogen flame travels faster in the engine than diesel, resulting in higher efficiency [
8]. Hydrogen also has a larger ignition limit and a higher diffusion coefficient, making it easier to achieve leaner combustion, which results in better fuel economy [
8]. Hydrogen has a high calorific value and more heat can be released by burning the same mass of hydrogen compare to diesel, so hydrogen engines are more efficient. However, there are some abnormal combustion conditions in some current internal combustion engines, such as backfire and premature combustion, both of which are likely to occur in inlet injection hydrogen engines [
11]. Backfire refers to a phenomenon where the gas mixture starts to burn before the inlet valve is closed and is mainly related to the concentration of the inlet mixture, the valve timing, and the ignition system. Premature ignition is mainly due to the low ignition energy and rapid flame spread of the hydrogen gas itself [
11]. These problems have now been tentatively solved by optimizing the structure of the engine ignition and cooling systems, reducing the engine mixer temperature and other measures. In comparison, a direct injection hydrogen engine is more advantageous because the hydrogen is injected directly into the combustion chamber, so that no backfire occurs and the power of the engine is also increased [
11]. As a result, various countries have become more committed to hydrogen engines. In 2003, the German company BMW put the 750hl hydrogen fuel engine car into the market in Berlin. Ford Motor Company in the USA is working on both hydrogen powered vehicles and fuel cell vehicles. Musashi Institute of Technology in Japan and Nissan Motor Company have been cooperating for a long time in the research of liquid hydrogen engine vehicles. Hence, the future of hydrogen engines is quite prospectively developed.
More and more scholars have paid attention to the Miller cycle in recent years, and many experimental and theoretical research has been carried out. Wang [
1] took a List-Petter TS12 Diesel Engine as the experimental object and applied the Miller cycle to it. Experimental results and theoretical analysis showed that the Miller cycle could reduce NOx emissions by reducing the exhaust temperature of the engine. Wang et al. [
5] conducted an experimental study on the NOx emissions of the Miller cycle applied to diesel engines, comparing three versions of Miller cycle (ERVC, EIVC, and LIVC) all had a positive effect on the reduction of NOx in diesel engines compared with the standard Dual cycle. This experiment provides the feasibility of the Miller cycle for reducing NOx emissions from diesel engines and is the cornerstone of future research in this field. Wartsila [
12] conducted a study on the influence of Miller cycle on NOx emissions of a six-cylinder direct injection marine diesel engine and used GTSuite software to simulate two different early closing angles. The result showed that when the advance closing angle was 100 CA and the boost pressure was 1.2 MPa, the NOx emission was reduced by 50%. Gonca et al. [
13] used a zero-dimensional two-zone combustion model to model an air-jet Miller cycle diesel engine, and compared the results with conventional diesel engines, Miller cycle diesel engines and steam injection diesel engines in terms of performance and CO emissions and found that it was more efficient at low and medium speeds. Moreover, NO emissions decreased under all the comparative conditions. Rinaldini et al. [
14] applied the Miller cycle to high-speed direct injection diesel generator by establishing a computer model, which reduced the combustion temperature of the engine and thus reduced NOx emissions. Gonca et al. [
15] used a single cylinder, four stroke, direct injection naturally aspirated diesel engine as the prototype for computer simulation, and determined the optimal camshaft crank angle by constant adjustment. Experimental results showed that in this case, NO emission was reduced by 30% compared with the traditional diesel engine with 0 CA, but the power was reduced by 2.5%. Wei et al. [
16] established a one-dimensional simulation model of a Miller cycle diesel engine and found that under the condition of EIVC and low load, Nox emissions would be reduced, but there is a danger of fire when the intake valve closes prematurely.
As the Miller cycle reduces the volume of air going into the engine cylinders, it may lead to a reduction in engine performance. In order to compensate for the inadequacy of the Miller cycle air intake, many scholars have also made relevant studies on the turbocharger. Zhu [
2] modelled a four-cylinder diesel engine with a two-stage turbocharger model and then applied the Miller cycle with early intake valve closed. The simulation results show that the two-stage turbocharger technology can reduce the diesel specific fuel consumption, in addition to improving the engine performance at low speeds. Rakopoulos and Giakoumis [
17] carried out a second law analysis of a six-cylinder turbocharged diesel engine and applied the availability equations to various parts of the diesel engine and discussed the results. Gonca and Sahin [
18] used a simulated model of a turbocharged Miller cycle diesel engine to Investigate the effect of engine operating parameters on effective power and efficiency and found that engine performance increased with higher cycle temperature ratios, inlet pressures and other parameters. Wu et al. [
19] experimentally investigated the effect of the Miller cycle and variable geometry turbocharger (VGT) on the performance and emissions of a six-cylinder diesel engine and showed that by adjusting the VGT, it was still possible to achieve low soot and NOx emissions from a diesel engine under cold operating conditions while maintaining high brake thermal efficiency (BTE). Pan et al. [
20] studied the influence of the Miller cycle on the fuel economy of a turbocharged direct injection gasoline engine under different load conditions and demonstrated that the BTE of the gasoline engine with the Miller cycle applied increased at all loads compared to the original gasoline engine, and then further simulations of the diesel engine resulted in a 2.9% increase in BTE.
Recently, scholars have devoted themselves to exploring renewable energy sources that can replace fossil fuels, and some clean energy sources (ethanol, hydrogen, etc.) have become the focus of research. Martins and Lanzanova [
21] conducted one-dimensional simulation analysis of a fully loaded Miler cycle spark ignition engine using ethanol as fuel and analyzed its future prospects. Chen et al. [
22] designed experiments to explore the combustion, performance, and emissions of ethanol engines. It is concluded that the diesel micro-ignited ethanol engine can achieve a low level of NOx emissions, but under high loads, the thermal efficiency and NOx emissions are higher. Pedrozo and Zhao [
23] designed an experimental study on ethanol-diesel dual-fuel compression ignition engine, using Miller cycle and charge air cooling technology to reduce the intake temperature in the cylinder. It demonstrated that compared with traditional diesel engine combustion, this engine produces lower NOx emissions and higher net indicated efficiency. Wang et al. [
24] simulated the combustion process of ethanol diesel in 475 diesel engines by establishing a simulation model and explored the combustion and emission characteristics of mixed fuels with different ethanol proportions. They found that with the increase of ethanol proportions, the temperature in the engine cylinder and the mass fraction of NOx emission gradually decreased. Jahanbakhshi et al. [
25] established an engine model using bioethanol and diesel as fuel. By comparing Miller cycle and Otto cycle, they found that under the same volume efficiency of the engine, bioethanol engines have higher power output and thermal efficiency. Balki applied Taguchi’s [
26] experimental method to a spark ignition engine fueled by pure ethanol and analyzed it against a gasoline engine, finding that both brake engine power and brake thermal efficiency were higher in the pure ethanol engine than in the gasoline engine, with an increase in BSFC. Khoa [
27] combines the results of experiments and simulations to investigate pure ethanol and methanol engines, where ethanol instead of methanol improves the BSFC at the optimum combustion time for both engines. Boretti [
28] simulates an inline four-spark ignition engine with turbo-cooling, and the pure ethanol engine shows better performance compared to the gasoline engine, with an increase of 20% in maximum torque and 23% in power output. Martínez and Ganji [
29] conducted experiments on an engine using pure gasoline and pure ethanol as fuel to compare engine performance and emissions. The results were 35% higher engine power, 38% higher engine efficiency, and 37% lower NOx emissions for the ethanol fuel than for gasoline fuel. Gomes et al. [
30] made an experimental study of a direct injection compression ignition hydrogen engine and found that compared with diesel engines, its power was significantly higher, and its efficiency was much increased. Tang [
31] experimentally explored the combustion and emission characteristics of hydrogen engines and found that hydrogen fueled engines cause higher NOx production and knocking at high loads. Chaichan [
32] studied a spark-ignition single cylinder hydrogen engine experimentally, testing both hot and cold exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems separately and proving that EGR can reduce NOx emissions. White et al. [
33] provide a theoretical analysis of the current state of hydrogen internal combustion engines nowadays, especially small and medium-sized engines, and makes recommendations for future development in the light of the current circumstances. Qin et al. [
34] conducted experiments on a diesel engine in which different proportions of hydrogen fuel were mixed into the diesel fuel to observe the combustion characteristics of the engine. It was found that the addition of hydrogen fuel increased the thermal efficiency of the engine compared to a conventional diesel engine. Lee [
35] tested a high-pressure direct injection hydrogen engine that was producing a large amount of NOx because of the high in-cylinder temperature due to the fast combustion of the hydrogen flame. Wright and Lewis [
36] based on available literature experimental data inferred that the use of EGR at very high and very low loads can contribute to the reduction of NOx emissions and suggested that if the cost is reasonable, technology can be used to reduce NOx emissions from hydrogen engines depending on the actual engine operating load. Bao et al. [
37] experimented on a direct injection hydrogen engine where the addition of a turbocharger increased maximum power at 2000 rpm and maximum torque lift at 4400 rpm by 123% and 195% respectively. Babayev et al. [
38] present a conceptual model and simulation study of a pure hydrogen engine with compression ignition and using hydrogen for ignition. The results are that the pure hydrogen engine has a higher brake thermal efficiency compared to the diesel engine. In addition to this, the heat loss of the hydrogen engine is lower. Although there has been a lot of research into alternative engine fuels, there has been relatively little research into the Miller cycle as applied to renewable energy sources, so this paper will be a simulation study of an ethanol engine and a hydrogen engine with the simultaneous application of the Miller cycle.
Based on the above information, it is clear that the Miller cycle has been extensively researched both experimentally and theoretically, and that it has proven to be potentially beneficial in terms of reducing NOx emissions. Although these studies can provide a strong reference for designers when designing engines, there is little literature comparing in detail the performance and emissions of engines at different levels of Miller cycles at different loads. The purpose of this research is to demonstrate the influence of Miller cycle on the performance and NOx emissions of diesel engines under different load conditions, and to achieve the advantages of Miller cycle with the addition of a turbocharger system to enhance engine power. The performance and NOx emissions of pure ethanol and hydrogen engines have also been investigated, and the Miller cycle was also applied. The final aim is to improve NOx emissions while maintaining the best possible engine performance, including brake power (BP), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and brake thermal engine efficiency (BTEE), and to provide a reference for the design of future energy-efficient, low-emission, and high-efficiency engines.