Green Transition and Electricity Sector Decarbonization: The Case of West Macedonia

Abstract

During the last 50 years, the vast majority of European countries have relied on coal and imported carbon-containing fuels to meet their growing electricity demand. Coal is the only fossil fuel in significant reserves across Europe. However, the pressing threat of radical climate change and the looming depletion of fossil fuels necessitate a structural transformation from a conventional centralized fossil fuel-based electricity generation system to an innovative decentralized system based on zero carbon (green) energy resources. In this context, one important issue for communities operating coal-based Thermal Power Stations (TPS) nearing retirement is whether the European Union (EU) policy can ensure a socially just development of the coal mining areas during the coal phase-out. The objective is to avoid a decline in living standards and mass immigration. In response to the EU’s decarbonization policy, the Greek state has recently decided to retire the lignite-based West Macedonia TPS, which has been in operation since the 1970s. Since its establishment in August 1950, the (initially State-controlled) Greek Public Power Corporation (PPC) has undertaken the responsibility to operate the quarries and the six local TPS, offering approximately 25,000 direct and indirect jobs. Over the last 50 years, the extraction of lignite and the operation of the 4500 MW_e TPS of West Macedonia has been the primary economic activity, accounting for nearly 45% of the entire Region’s GDP. While both the Greek state and the EU have prepared and presented plans to financially support local communities and encourage new private and public investments, local citizens remain anxious about their future. The present study investigates the attitude of young scientists towards the forthcoming radical changes linked to the green transition in seriously affected EU Regions, with a focus on West Macedonia. The proposed analysis in West Macedonia reveals the skepticism of young people regarding the speed of the green transition and concerns about significant migration and potential brain drain. On the other hand, the implementation of EU initiatives, including the involvement of young scientists in the planned new green energy-related activities, offers a promising alternative solution. This engagement can lead to the successful integration of local communities into the sustainable and green future envisioned by the EU.

1. Introduction

Electricity stands as one of the most crucial infrastructures supporting modern economies, underpinning essential services of our society, ranging from healthcare to banking and transportation. A reliable electricity supply is thus fundamental. Up to now, most European countries are heavily relying on (usually imported) carbon-containing fuels to fulfill their continuously increasing electricity demand. However, the escalating threat of radical Climate Change driven by increasing greenhouse gas emissions and the danger of the impending depletion of fossil fuels necessitate a fundamental shift from a conventional centralized fossil fuel-based electricity generation system to an innovative decentralized system based on renewable energy resources. This transition places a significant responsibility on governments, major electricity producers, and other stakeholders to ensure electricity supply security by developing updated market policies, regulations, and plans [1].

The recent Russian–Ukraine crisis has further exacerbated challenges for the European Union, including surging energy demand, fluctuating energy prices, and energy supply security deficits. This so-called post-normal situation [2], and consequently, the role of coal (lignite) in this Energy Transition era, is being questioned. Moreover, a critical concern arises for the local societies operating coal (lignite) based TPS regarding the EU’s ability to facilitate a socially just development of these mining areas during the coal phase-out effort.

Over the past 70 years, coal has been the primary solid fossil fuel used worldwide, predominantly for electricity generation. However, inland consumption of lignite in the EU has shown a significant decline in the last 30 years, as illustrated in Figure 1. Nonetheless, lignite remains a substantial primary energy reserve available in relatively large quantities in the national territory of some EU Member States. Despite its relatively low energy-specific content, using in-house lignite to generate electricity is much cheaper (excluding the carbon dioxide tax) than importing other fossil fuels (e.g., natural gas or oil). This utilization of domestic lignite also contributes to the energy autonomy of the EU. In this context, the majority of coal produced by Member States is used domestically, while the EU imports approximately 106 Mt of coal, accounting for about 25% of the total coal used. More specifically, in 2021, Russia supplied 52% of hard coal and 70% of steam coal, while Australia provided 46% of coking coal imports [3].

Traditionally, coal (lignite) has primarily been used for power generation, accounting for over 95% of its usage, with occasional applications in heat generation for power plants and combined heat and power (CHP) plants located near the mine site known as mine-mouth power stations. As of the recent past (2022), a total of 198 coal-fired power stations were operational in 17 Member States (see

Table 1. Coal-fired Power Stations Status in Europe [5].

	Coal-Fired Power Stations by Country			Coal-Fired Power Capacity by Country (MW)
Country	Construction	Operating	Retired 2000–2022	Operating (MW)	Retired 2000–2022 (MW)
Austria	0	0	7	0	1993
Belgium	0	0	9	0	2865
Bulgaria	0	11	2	4709	1380
Croatia	0	1	0	210	0
Republic of Cyprus	-	-	-	-	-
Czech Republic	0	24	7	7351	2997
Denmark	0	3	8	1180	3823
Estonia	0	0	0
Finland	0	7	10	1468	2319
France	0	6	13	0.860	6619
Germany	0	63	57	37,503	24,629
Greece	1	3	5	1925	2753
Hungary	0	3	4	944	515
Ireland	0	1	0	915	0
Italy	0	7	11	6806	4194
Latvia	-	-	-	-	-
Lithuania	-	-	-	-	-
Luxembourg	-	-	-	-	-
Malta	-	-	-	-	-
Netherlands	0	4	5	4152	3665
Poland	1	44	22	30,180	6019
Portugal	0	0	3	0	2028
Romania	0	8	13	2955	4450
Slovakia	0	4	3	769	724
Slovenia	0	2	2	1069	535
Spain	0	7	20	2579	10,159
Sweden	0	0	2	0	291
TOTAL	2	198	203	106,575	81,958

) [5], while more than 200 coal-fired power stations have been decommissioned in the last two decades. In 2021, EU coal mines produced approximately 332 million Metric Tons, consisting of 57 Mt of hard coal and 275 Mt of lignite. Among EU Member states, Germany stands as the largest coal (lignite) producer (126 Mt), followed by Poland (107 Mt), Czech Republic (31 Mt), Bulgaria (28 Mt), Romania (18 Mt) and Greece (12 Mt) [6].

Lignite is found in abundance in the underground of Greece, and it is estimated that existing reserves will be sufficient to serve as the primary fuel for in-house electricity generation for the next three decades [7]. The country has approximately 4.7 billion Metric Tons of lignite reserves, with lignite production reaching around 36.5 Mt in 2018 [8]. During the past decade, the lignite TPS listed in Table 2 were operational, all of which were under the control of (initially State-controlled) Greek PPC, with a nominal power capacity of nearly 5GW_e (see Figure 2) [9]. These TPS used to contribute significantly to the national electricity generation, accounting for about 25% to 70% of the national electricity generation (see Figure 3). However, their contribution is gradually decreasing over time. Specifically, in 2020, the share of lignite in the country’s gross electricity production was only 14% (compared to 32% in 2018) of the country’s gross electricity production, corresponding to approximately 48 TWh_e. The lignite inland consumption for 2020 was 14 Mt [10]. Nowadays, the contribution of lignite to the national electricity generation has slightly risen to around 10%, according to the Energy Reports of the Independent Power Transmission Operator (IPTO), somewhat increased after the recent Russian–Ukraine crisis.

On the other hand, lignite holds a significant position as Greece’s most valuable indigenous energy resource, excluding renewable energy sources (RES). To this end, for over half a century, Greek lignite was regarded as a fuel of strategic importance. Its strategic value stems from its low mining cost, stable and easily controllable price, and ensures fuel supply stability and security. Moreover, lignite plays a crucial role in generating thousands of jobs in rural areas with notably high unemployment rates [11,12].

In response to the current energy crisis, the Ministry of Environment and Energy made a decision on 14 December 2022, to address the situation. As a part of this decision, the operation of all five units of Agios Dimitrios will be extended. Specifically, units 3 and 4 and Meliti TPS will operate until 2025 (see Table 2). This extension builds upon a similar decision made on 27 December 2021, concerning units 1, 2 and 5 of Agios Dimitrios and unit 4 of Megalopoli.

Table 2. PPC Lignite Power Stations Status by 2022.

Lignite Power Station	Initially Installed Capacity (MW)	Withdrawn Units (MW)	Currently in Operation Capacity (MW)
TPS of LIPTOL	43	43	0
TPS of PTOLEMAIDA	620	620	0
TPS of KARDIA	1250	1250	0
TPS of AG.DIMITRIOS	1595	0	1595
TPS of AMINDEO	600	600	0
TPS of MELITI	330	0	330
TPS of MEGALOPOLI 3	250	250	0
TPS of MEGALOPOLI 4	300	0	300
TOTAL MW	4988	2763	2225

P.S. The new Ptolemaida-5 TPS (600 MW) is under testing operation during 2023 [12].

Table 2. PPC Lignite Power Stations Status by 2022.

Lignite Power Station	Initially Installed Capacity (MW)	Withdrawn Units (MW)	Currently in Operation Capacity (MW)
TPS of LIPTOL	43	43	0
TPS of PTOLEMAIDA	620	620	0
TPS of KARDIA	1250	1250	0
TPS of AG.DIMITRIOS	1595	0	1595
TPS of AMINDEO	600	600	0
TPS of MELITI	330	0	330
TPS of MEGALOPOLI 3	250	250	0
TPS of MEGALOPOLI 4	300	0	300
TOTAL MW	4988	2763	2225

P.S. The new Ptolemaida-5 TPS (600 MW) is under testing operation during 2023 [12].

2. European Countries’ Coal Phase-Out towards Green Transition

2.1. Coal Contribution to the EU Electricity Generation

Coal extraction and utilization in the electricity sector have been significant economic activities for several European countries over the past decades, and it remains the only fossil fuel with notable reserves throughout Europe. More specifically, during the period from 1990 to 2020, six Member States (Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece) produced almost 95% of the total coal (lignite) in the EU. Actually, in 2020 the indigenous production of lignite in Germany (44%), Poland (19%), Czech Republic (12%), Bulgaria (9%), Romania and Greece (both 12%) all together accounted for 96% of the total EU production of 244.5 Mt (see Figure 1 and Figure 4) [13].

In 2020, the six lignite-producing countries utilized, on average, 98% of the lignite they mined for electricity and heat generation. Notably, Greece utilized the entire lignite production exclusively for electricity generation. During 2021, the EU as a whole produced 226 TWh_e gross electricity and 25.4 TWh gross heat from lignite. Indicatively, Germany produced 108.8 TWh_e gross electricity and 7.2 TWh gross heat, while Greece produced 5.3 TWh_e gross electricity and 0.5 TWh gross heat (for district heating purposes) from the same source [14].

2.2. EU Green Transition Plan

In the fight against climate change, all the EU member states have pledged to make the EU the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. To achieve this goal, the EU members decided to reduce emissions by at least 55% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels. An essential objective of the European Green Deal is “Cleaning our energy system”. The Commission proposes increasing the mandatory target of renewable sources in the EU’s energy mix to 40% and achieving an overall reduction of 36–39%, respectively, for final and primary energy consumption by 2030.

To address the disruption in the global energy market caused by the Russian–Ukraine crisis, the EU introduced the REPower EU Plan. In March 2023, the EU agreed to raise its binding target for 2030 to 42.5%, with the ambition to reach 45% of RES in the EU’s energy mix. This would nearly double the existing share of renewable energy in the EU. By June 30, 2023, Member States will submit to the Commission the updated National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) in line with Article 14 of the Governance Regulation [15].

In this context, the EU has decided to phase out its main coal power plants in the coming years. Actually, coal-fired power stations are major contributors to the forthcoming climate change, with their corresponding carbon dioxide emissions (approximately 1.0 to 1.6 kg per kWh_e produced) being primary drivers of global climate change. In Figure 5, a comparison of coal-based CO₂ emissions in selected countries (with recently announced coal phase-out dates) is presented alongside the total CO₂ emissions of the corresponding economies.

To curb the significant CO₂ emissions from coal power stations, Figure 6 provides an overview of their phase-out commitments in the EU, according to the European Commission’s webpage [17]. Governments have made announcements committing to these phase-outs in the near future. However, due to the continuous and unstable geopolitical and energy environment in contemporary Europe, adjustments or revisions of these announcements have been observed, as depicted in Figure 6.

In pursuit of a just and safe energy transition, it is essential that all actions align with climate, environmental, health, and well-being requirements while also addressing the social and economic needs of the affected workers, communities, and regions. Meeting the objectives of the United Nations (UN) Climate Agreement signed in Paris necessitates that Europe and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries need to be fossil-free by 2050 [18,19].

2.3. Coal Phase-Out in the EU Electricity Fuel Mix

According to a recent report by the Centre of Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) and the independent think-tank Ember, in response to the gas Russian–Ukraine crisis, many European countries have significantly increased their ambitions for renewable energy deployment and planned to reduce fossil fuel generation. This crisis exposed the European economy’s dependence on Russian fossil fuels, prompting a search for alternatives. However, coal remains one of the few short-term indigenous options available in parts of Europe, including Germany, the largest economy. Despite this contradiction, several countries announced coal phase-out dates between 2020 and 2022. For instance, Bulgaria (Coal phase-out date 2038–2040), Croatia (Coal phase-out date 2033), Czech Republic (Coal phase-out date 2033), Poland (Coal phase-out date 2049), Romania (Coal phase-out date 2033), Slovenia (Coal phase-out date 2033), with Germany accelerated its target date from 2038 to 2030. Although coal experienced a temporary increase in generation since mid-2021 due to skyrocketing gas prices, its high price (mainly due to the imposed environmental taxes) is now contributing to increased consumer tariffs in countries like Poland. However, the implementation of the already announced policy is crucial to the successful transition. On the other hand, the adoption of renewable energy sources (RES) encounters several challenges, including appropriate land availability, outdated electrical infrastructure, complex legislation, and the need to develop the (new) prosumer status instead of the traditional consumer status [20].

Another critical factor influencing the future of the coal power stations in Europe is their operational period. Data indicates that [21] the average age of a coal power plant in the EU is almost 35 years, with the majority commissioned over 30 years ago. Considering the current situation, it seems not possible that the European coal fleet will be replaced by new, more efficient power plants on the same fuel.

Table 3. Coal Power Plants Capacity (under construction or expected to be constructed before 2025).

Country	Capacity (MW)
Poland	4465
Germany	1100
Greece	600
Croatia	500

provides an overview of the limited number of new coal-fired power stations expected to be constructed or currently under construction until 2025 in various countries, including Poland, Germany, Greece, and Croatia. As one can see from Table 3, the new coal-fired TPS consists of a handful of projects in Poland and three plants in Germany, Greece, and Croatia, respectively [22].

However, despite this gradual decarbonization of the EU, lignite is still producing (2021) more electricity than solar photovoltaic installations, representing 8% and 5%, respectively, of total gross electricity produced in the EU.

2.4. Green but Also Just Energy Transition

The European Energy Policy, which developed since the 1970s, achieving the objectives set by the Community in the next stages of the green transformation, has allowed the identification of the main documents at the EU level. In 2020, the European Commission, in an attempt to inform, inspire, and support cooperation between individuals and organizations, like educational institutions, consumer organizations, and research organizations, as well as to involve them in climate action, launched the European Climate Pact [23].

The Green Transition of the Energy Sector is not a linear process. It involves technical challenges intertwined with crucial societal aspects. Adopting a scientific approach is essential to understand the roadmap of this transition and ensure its successful implementation. The significance of energy impact over the last years has drawn a considerable body of current academic literature to delve into what industries, consumers, governments, and markets can undergo to accelerate a faster, just, and sustainable energy transition [24].

Furthermore, the scale of the challenge varies across European Regions. Areas that heavily rely on fossil fuels and carbon-intensive industries will undergo profound economic, environmental, and social transformations. A key concern of the EU’s “European Green Deal” is to mobilize resources and implement measures to target benefits for the regions and sectors most affected by the transition, ensuring a fair and inclusive process that “leaves no one behind”.

Karagianni and Pempetzoglou’s study [25] recognize the potential negative consequences of “delignitization” policies on income distribution amongst (a) European and Greek households, (b) residents in areas heavily impacted by decarbonization and residents in other regions of Greece and (c) households in proximity to lignite units. The topic of inequality arising from the energy transition is relatively new in social research and needs further study. In addition, the opinion of the local population, and especially young energy professionals, who are significantly affected by these changes and thus characterized as the brain drain group, has not been adequately considered.

The Quadruple Helix (QH) approach suggests that innovation is the outcome of an interactive process involving various actors, ultimately improving social justice. QH refers to structures and processes of knowledge, economy, and society. The result of a just transition requires the integration of activities at the institutional level between all stakeholders as a fundamental condition for the successful performance of the developed and the developing economies, societies, and democracies. Therefore, to address energy challenges, it is essential to integrate innovative solutions at all levels of society and institutions [26,27].

3. Greek State Decarbonization Policy

According to the latest official (December 2019) National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP), all Greek lignite TPS, with a total installed capacity of approximately 4 GW_e, are expected to phase out by the end of 2028 after extending the initial NECP target from 2025. At the same time, all lignite mines in West Macedonia and Megalopolis (Peloponnese) are also slated to be abandoned [28]. Only the new under-testing phase Ptolemaida-5 power plant in West Macedonia has been scheduled to operate initially using lignite and subsequently switch (after 2028) using natural gas (

Table 4. Time Evolution of Lignite Plants’ Withdrawal in West Macedonia and Future Planning [29].

Region	TPS	Withdrawal Year	TPS	Withdrawal Year
West Macedonia	LIPTOL 1	2014	LIPTOL 2	2014
	PTOLEMAIDA 1	2011	PTOLEMAIDA 2	2014
	PTOLEMAIDA 3	2014	PTOLEMAIDA 4	2015
	PTOLEMAIDA 5	2028	AGIOS DIMITRIOS 1	2025
	AGIOS DIMITRIOS 2	2025	AGIOS DIMITRIOS 3	2025
	AGIOS DIMITRIOS 4	2025	AGIOS DIMITRIOS 5	2025
	KARDIA 1	2019	KARDIA 2	2019
	KARDIA 3	2021	KARDIA 4	2021
	AMINDEO 1	2020	AMINDEO 2	2020
	MELITI	2025

).

According to the NECP, the Kardia lignite-fired power units (Figure 2) completed the final stage of retirement (April 2021), having reached their maximum operational hours (i.e., 32,000 h of operation). The retirement of the power units, along with the earlier decommissioning of Amindeo power stations in 2021, resulted in a power loss equivalent to 1850 MW_e (Table 4). On top of producing electricity, these two last Kardia units have also supported the district heating network of the nearby city of Ptolemaida. In the long-term planning of PPC, the prospective Ptolemaida 5 unit is intended to cover the above-mentioned district heating services. However, in the interim, intermediate solutions are required. Despite the lignite reserves of Greece, before the Ukraine-Russia crisis, Greek authorities chose to replace lignite almost exclusively with imported natural gas, both in power generation and heating. Thus, more than 5000 MW_e of imported natural-gas-based power stations were built to replace the electricity generation from retiring coal power stations. Note that all these new natural gas power stations are spread all over Greece, and there is no new natural-gas-based power station in the entire West Macedonia region (Figure 2).

Due to the forced and accelerated decarbonization in the region of West Macedonia, the economic activity in the region has experienced a significant drop. To mitigate the impact, efforts have been made, under the new European budget for (2021–2027), to secure increased funds from the Union’s Just Transition Fund. Additionally, funds from programs like Horizon, Connecting Europe Facility, and Invest EU will bolster this effort for the Just Energy Transition. A cohesive, multi-faceted, and front-loaded plan [28] was presented in mid-2020 to serve as a roadmap towards the post-lignite era [30].

In Greece, an integrated National Plan for a Just Development Transition was initially drafted, with the goal of achieving holistic developmental transformation of the country’s lignite areas. The aim is to attract investments and to create new values in sectors other than lignite in West Macedonia and Megalopolis (Central Peloponnese). The plan was structured around five policy pillars: “clean” energy, industry and trade, technology and education, sustainable tourism, and “smart” agricultural production. These pillars are in line with the five Policy Objectives that the strategic priorities of the European Structural and Investment Funds will focus on.

3.1. Financial Resources for West Macedonia Energy Transition

The Region of West Macedonia, being one of the less developed regions of the EU, extends to an area of 9451 km² and has a population of nearly 270,000 people. According to the available data, Greek electricity production, until recently, has heavily relied on lignite mining, with approximately 50% of the national electricity generation coming from the lignite TPSs of Table 4 (Hellenic Ministry of Environment and Energy, 2020). Furthermore, the majority of West Macedonia’s employment is closely linked, directly or indirectly, to the exploitation of its natural resources, including land and mining [31]. Additionally, the Regional Unit of West Macedonia is the first region in the country where district heating networks have been designed and installed to meet the heat demand of citizens in three cities, i.e., (Kozani, Ptolemaida, Amindeo) [32].

The EU, employing the Greek State, is offering incentives such as tax breaks to address the challenges of ongoing decarbonization and others, promoting Renewable Energy Applications and entrepreneurship that align with environmental goals to attract local investment and create new industries in the region. Actually, investments concerning the construction of photovoltaic parks (e.g., Ptolemaida 200MW_p and Megalopolis 50MW_p are part of the portfolio of the RES projects of PPC), while innovative and efficient technologies like manufacturing of batteries and electric chargers, electric vehicles, etc. are an ongoing discussion. In addition, a study is considered necessary for the construction and operation of a pilot unit for the use of Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) technology in one of the retiring lignite units in the region as well as in the new Ptolemaida-5 unit. CCUS technology is strongly recommended for a future scenario where lignite/coal remains as fuel [28,33,34].

Regional authorities, in collaboration with the local University of Western Macedonia, are interested in designing training programs for innovative and efficient technologies, adopting novel knowledge and improved skills. The University is also encouraged to undertake initiatives to develop educational and research activities related to pioneer ideas in the energy field [28].

For the financial support of projects planned in the energy sector, “The Green Fund” was established by the Greek State as a Legal Entity through Public Law 3889/2010. The Green Fund was created to financially support projects and actions that promote just and sustainable economic activities of low carbon environmental footprint in the Regional Unit of Kozani and Florina and in the municipality of Megalopolis of the Regional Unit of Arcadia (Peloponnese). These regions are the main areas in Greece affected by the EU’s decarbonization policy. The financial budget of this Program (see

Table 5. Greek Delignitization Program (July 2020 to May 2021) Report [35].

α/α	Axis	Amount
1	Pilot Program of Cyclic Municipal Waste Management	1 million EUR
2	Energy Communities	7 million EUR
3	Circular Economy Plans	250 thousand EUR
4	Small and Medium Enterprises Support Program	10 million EUR
5	Innovation Zone of West Macedonia	150 thousand EUR
6	Sustainable Energy and Climate Plans	150 thousand EUR

) approached 20 MEUR while mainly emphasizing the Small and Medium Enterprises Support Program 10 MEUR, and the Energy Communities support 7 MEUR [35].

For the period 2020–2023, a significantly more ambitious Program called the “Special Program for a Just Development Transition” has been designed and approved by the competent Government Committee with an indicative budget of 470 million euros and will be implemented gradually [36]. This Program is structured around six Priority Axes (

Table 6. Priority Axis of Special Transition Program [36].

α/α	Priority Axes of Special Transitional Program
1	Promoting the Employment of the Unemployed and the Self-Employed, as well as the Adaptability of Employees and Businesses, including the upgrading of educational infrastructure.
2	Addressing Social Impacts and Enhancing Social Cohesion.
3	Preparing for Economic and Productive Diversification, including the Primary Sector. Enhancing Entrepreneurship and Attracting Investments.
5	Restructuring of the Energy Identity and Rationalization of the Utilization and Use of Environmental Resources.
6	Promoting Urban Revitalization and Sustainable Urban Mobility.
7	Scientific and Technical Support, Maturation of Actions.

), aiming to strengthen social cohesion, reorienting employment, and diversifying local economies. These Priority Axes are aligned with the capabilities of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) 2014–2020, the resources of the Green Fund, as well as other available funding sources.

3.2. West Macedonia Labor Market Situation and Potential Job Losses

West Macedonia has been deeply affected by the economic and financial crisis of 2008, disproportionately even compared to the rest of Greece. It has emerged as the poorest region in the country, with one out of four people living below the poverty line. As a result, the region records the highest unemployment rate of the country (27% of the active population). For the past six decades, PPC has had a crucial role in providing jobs in the mining, quarrying, and power sectors, offering nearly 3900 direct full-time positions and 750 eight-month contracts in 2018.

According to the Just Transition Development Plan (SDAM) [29] (see Table 7), in 2020, the total number of people employed in the energy-related mining sector of the West Macedonia region (activity developed by PPC) mobilizes the direct and indirect employment of approximately 5000 people encompassing:

• regular staff in mining operations, factories, and other supporting operations,
• temporary staff and
• contractor staff

Table 7. Labor force of PPC activity related to lignite units of Kozani and Florina [29].

Sector	Regular Staff	Temporary Staff	Contractor Staff	Total Staff by Sector
Mining operations	1600	141	1365	3106
Power stations	1113	146	0	1259
Supporting operations	425	89	0	514
Other operations	0	88	0	88
	3138	464	1365	4967

Table 7. Labor force of PPC activity related to lignite units of Kozani and Florina [29].

Sector	Regular Staff	Temporary Staff	Contractor Staff	Total Staff by Sector
Mining operations	1600	141	1365	3106
Power stations	1113	146	0	1259
Supporting operations	425	89	0	514
Other operations	0	88	0	88
	3138	464	1365	4967

It is worth mentioning that the employment created indirectly by the mining activities and the power stations is much higher than the direct employment in the corresponding fields. It is estimated that the total number of job positions potentially affected directly and indirectly by the closure of mines and the retirement of corresponding TPSs is estimated to be approximately 25,000. An ad hoc survey of a sample of PPC subcontractors estimated that an additional 11,000 indirect jobs would be affected (7200 by subcontractors and 3800 by sub-subcontractors) on top of the direct job losses [31]. The majority of these lost job positions are likely to belong to middle-aged and older workers with lower educational qualifications but have acquired their skills through their work.

Concerning that loss of job positions, the “social package” of Public Employment Service (former National Employment Agency), totaling 107 million euros, enters the implementation trajectory in the middle of 2022 to support employment in the Regions of West Macedonia and Peloponnese and their just and smooth transition to the Post-lignite era. This social package is part of the broader planning of de-lignification support, which is characterized as a top priority of the Greek State. It is one of the main tools expected in the coming two years to minimize the gap in employment until the full activation of all programs and actions of the Just Transition Mechanism will mobilize funds of over 5 billion euros and create a new productive and development model for the former lignite areas [37].

4. The Young Scientists’ Attitude Living in West Macedonia towards Expected Radical Changes

The EU’s Green Energy Transition Strategy aims to be inclusive, smart, secure, and sustainable. However, in practice, local communities participating in this Energy Transition plan are expected to face significant challenges directly related to the fast phase-out of coal utilization. On the other hand, proponents of the Energy Transition argue that decarbonizing energy systems could lead to new job creation and economic growth while also protecting the climate of our planet.

According to the EU decisions, the above-described radical changes in the West Macedonia Prefecture are expected to occur rapidly. These significant adaptations will crucially impact the region’s economic life, affecting its main productive sector. The energy transition may well lead to economic and demographic shrinkage. Unfortunately, the constantly exerted pressures on the local economy related to the gradual reduction in lignite-related activity may potentially lead to unemployment and income loss in the region [38]. To better understand the social attitude of the local society towards these dramatic changes, an on-site survey was planned and implemented over the last two years (February 2020 to February 2021).

4.1. Survey Methodology

This survey focuses on well-educated post-graduate students preparing their academic records in the energy sector and seeking to find an appropriate job position in energy-related activities. This decision is also based on the complexity of the energy sector, which may require a higher level of specialization than the average citizen. According to Rausser et al. [39], consumers with more precise energy use and saving perceptions than the average citizen are more likely to identify more energy-conserving actions. This is the first potential step toward behavioral change and greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction.

Thus, the respondents were selected based on their level of knowledge about the energy issues, while locality was a significant factor because all these young people’s lives are directly influenced by energy policy decisions at both European and national levels. In order to gather comprehensive information and tap into their experiences, open-ended questions were used in personal interviews. Although this type of research makes data processing difficult, it offers the advantage of an in-depth understanding of the opinions and arguments of young scientists, resulting in the collection of high-quality data. Additionally, the respondents’ common terminology led to a reliable interpretation of their answers.

More specifically, the survey involved 100 young scientists attending post-graduate (master’s degree) studies in energy and residing in the West Macedonia region. They were asked about several topics related to the energy sector decarbonization. Their age ranged from 25 to 35 years, and the gender ratio consisted of 1/3 female and 2/3 male. Based on the available data analysis, the opinions of women and men interviewed did not show differences greater than 8%.

The survey addressed several topics related to (limit of three impacts for each category) technological, economic, environmental, and social impacts of the planned decarbonization strategy in the regional units of West Macedonia. Additionally, the participants were asked to evaluate the Greek State’s submitted “Just Energy Transition” plan and to provide their arguments about the necessity of rapid lignite elimination in this process. Finally, they were asked to propose their own ideas for implementing the “Just Energy Transition” in their region.

4.2. Data Analysis

In broad terms, it is evident that young scientists acknowledge the strong interconnection between energy society and policy planning in modern society. This outcome becomes more obvious when observing the responses, which address primarily the economic and social dimensions of decarbonization, as depicted in Figure 7, rather than the technological and environmental ones. It also indicates the enormous work that needs to be performed and the difficulties appearing during the implementation stage of the proposed decarbonization plan. Hence, the primary concern of the respondents is the proximity and swiftness of the proposed changes, along with the degree of practicality of the entire strategy.

Categorizing the opinion of the respondents regarding the primary impacts of local energy sector decarbonization, it becomes evident how closely interconnected all the involved sectors are and how all sectors are affected when not facilitating the distinction between categories in most cases (see

Table 8. Decarbonization Effects as Reported by West Macedonia Young Citizens.

Decarbonization Effects
Technological	Social	Economic	Environmental
The utilization of natural gas for electricity production reduces the exploitation of its energy content, resulting in remarkable energy waste.	The district heating program continuation needs.	Employment problems and households’ total income decrease.	Immediate and efficient soil remediation.
Behavior changes and technology use in daily habits in order to achieve energy saving, rational energy use, energy storage, and hydrogen production.	Negative impact on the living quality of residents and amplify the risk of leaving the area.	The energy market liberalization is encouraging; due to the new energy mix adopted, energy prices increase, and negative impacts on energy supply security.	Sedimentation and deposition of new materials.

).

Right from the outset of the data collection, the need of the local community for pragmatic and well-organized solutions becomes apparent. Locals are concerned about the applicability and effectiveness of the announcements so far. They perceive, once again, a disproportionate burden for the effective operation of the country’s energy sector is placed on their shoulders. Their main concerns resolved around effective management of:

• the existing infrastructure and sites
• the accumulated expertise nurtured within West Macedonia

as well as the reciprocity of new projects intended for the local community. There is a shared aspiration among them to become future employees and scientific contributors within the Regional Unit. It also required a vivid local economy and a healthy environment. Local residents are seeking the insights of the scientific community while also emphasizing the importance of their perspectives being acknowledged by the state. Within these responses, we have begun to discern the need for local community involvement in this green transition while gradually emerging roles in the field of energy transition are taking shape.

4.3. Environment and Technology

In terms of the technological approach, the biggest remark of respondents (see Figure 8) is the comparatively lower efficiency of natural gas (NG) for electricity production in contrast to its direct use. This answer garners the highest share, i.e., 32% of the responses. Here the specialization of the sample of respondents and the importance of education is evident.

People also reported the potential changes in residents’ daily lives and the necessary shifts in behavior to effectively apply new technologies for energy efficiency, energy saving, energy storage, and hydrogen utilization. Additionally, the vast majority centers on the view that lignite exploitation should not be abandoned in such a short period and that it is necessary to keep these units at “cold backup” status. Moreover, everyone agrees on the obligatory upgrade of the electricity grid in order to be able to host decentralized electricity generation. Respondents also suggest that lignite should be retained to fulfill the system’s base load, preserving a minimum percentage of 10–15% in the national fuel mix. This strategy aims to ensure the country’s necessary reserves regardless of the weather conditions or fluctuations in natural gas prices.

In the environmental sector, a unanimous agreement prevails regarding the land returning to local society for both environmental and social reasons. Furthermore, there is a noteworthy apprehension among all respondents (Figure 9) concerning the duration of soil remediation and implications, such as lignite self-ignition, carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions from open pit mines, as well as slope stability. Even in the case of early restoration, responders also worry about sedimentation rate and new materials’ deposition. Twenty-nine percent (29%) of participants have mentioned as a serious environmental problem (to be addressed immediately) the spaces remaining after lignite extraction that are to be transformed into lakes of unknown capacities. Among degraded areas, post-mining soils are considered to contribute to increased CO₂ emissions into the atmosphere. In Europe, in contrast to other global regions, a favorable and visible attitude towards the afforestation process has emerged, resulting in an expanded area of nearly 19.3 Mha, potentially fostering a positive contribution to climate change mitigation on a European scale. Positive carbon feedback in remediated soil was observed through increased Soil Carbon Sequestration (SOC) in post-mining areas after one year of applying climate-friendly forest management techniques in the studied post-mining areas, both limestone and lignite post-mining soils [40].

4.4. Economy and Society

As already mentioned, based on the material gathered, the issues of greatest concern amongst all respondents are those of economic and social ramifications. The problem of economic decline and its impact on local employment and households’ total income is directly or indirectly tied to the operation of the local TPS. As anticipated, the retirement of the local TPSs is poised to cast a pall over residents’ quality of life and amplify the risk of outward migration from the region. These topics have been emphasized by all respondents, also focusing on their interconnection and the risk of increased unemployment and economic decline due to the strong dependency of the region’s gross domestic product on lignite exploitation. Concerns have also been raised about escalating energy costs due to changes in the national energy mix. There is also unease about the diminishing national energy self-sufficiency, coupled with the untapped potential of remaining lignite reserves (36% and 40% responses, respectively, Figure 10). Finally, one of the main impacts reported is the projected economic downturn. In a nod to the future, all respondents express the necessity for substantial funding to bolster the activities of the local University Research Centers in order to support the energy transition of the region through innovative research programs.

Likewise, there are several respondents who believe that the privatization of the energy market is escalating due to fuel change from (State-controlled) lignite utilization to privately provided natural gas. Within this perspective, the political contours of this transition emerge as a critical lifeline for the survival of the local community. The effects of the political decisions concerning the energy mix change of Greece at the local society (i.e., West Macedonia) level are also clearly visible.

Finally, locals are particularly worried about the district heating program continuation. This issue has been mentioned in almost 3/4 of the answers regarding the social impacts of decarbonization, Figure 11. The continuation of district heating is assumed critical due to the cold climate of the area. Moreover, they emphasize the indispensable role of active engagement by residents and local government bodies in fostering social entrepreneurship schemes.

5. Discussion of the Results

The EU’s decision to decarbonize the electricity market is undoubtedly a crucial step in safeguarding our planet’s climate. On the other hand, issues like energy supply security and energy price affordability are the other two pillars of the energy “trilemma” that should also be taken into consideration. Moreover, this centralized decision by the EU has a serious impact on several relatively economically disadvantaged regions located near the Union’s borders. As a direct result, the local community of West Macedonia is deeply concerned about the profound changes unfolding in their area. The local people have clearly understood that the Energy Transition, in order to save the climate of our planet, imposes rapid changes in all aspects of their daily lives. This sense of unease and apprehension extends to all lignite regions across Europe [41].

Generally speaking, two contrasting narratives often emerge concerning the social impact of the energy transition. The first narrative argues that transitioning to clean energy presents a great opportunity to stimulate economic growth and create more job opportunities. The second, on the contrary, contends that striving for ambitious goals such as achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, as committed by the European Union, “will cost us very dearly”. Which of the two is correct? Ultimately, the cost of the transition depends on its pace and execution [42].

Greece is one of the first European countries that was committed to decarbonizing its energy sector by 2028. However, the transition to clean technologies is associated with high costs, expected to burden primarily the local economy of the coal-producing areas, while the financial support supplied by the Just Transition Mechanism is presently deemed insufficient to adequately address the negative socio-economic impacts of the phase-out policy for lignite [25]. This deficit described above has been notably evident in the case of West Macedonia. West Macedonia faces the daunting task of replacing its entire lignite economic value chain in just eight (8) years. This value chain currently sustains 5000 permanent and 15,000 non-standard jobs and up to one billion euros annually to the region’s wealth. Remarkably, this economic contribution accounts for almost 42% of the Administrative Region’s GDP [43].

Upon analyzing the situation in the main lignite areas of Europe, it becomes evident that the decarbonization rates and options vary significantly in each region. Thus, although the framework for decarbonization is common among all Member States of the European Union, the implementation roadmaps of this profound energy transition differ due to the varying degrees to which the central government considers local communities’ reactions and technological considerations [44]. For instance, a notable study by Weber and Carbas [45] delved into the contradictions of Germany’s Green Economy strategy, given the country’s abundant lignite resources. In fact, four (4) out of the five European most polluting power stations in terms of CO₂ emissions are lignite power stations located in Germany. Despite the ambitious Germany’s Green Economy strategy, the development of significant projects, such as High-Voltage Power Lines or pumped storage power plants, has faced significant opposition from affected societies, making them highly unpopular. Examples can also be drawn from countries outside the European Union [46].

In order to contribute to the optimum implementation of the EU Green Transition, one of the objectives of the present study is to gather and analyze the opinion of a particular group of local people, i.e., a valuable sample of young scientists. This group of young and talented individuals represents a valuable sample, as they hold the potential to play a significant role in the Just Energy Transition of their Region. Furthermore, the analysis of data is used to underline their agony for potential negative outcomes that could result from hastily implementing decarbonization policies. Additionally, to inform the politicians about possible negative results of the imposed fast decarbonization (as can be characterized in the case of West Macedonia). Such negative consequences may have a significant impact on the overall effectiveness of a well-intentioned policy. Based on the findings of the present research, there is a widespread consensus that the energy transition must be carried out promptly to safeguard both the natural and man-made environment. In this context, the young scientists involved highlighted various social, economic, and environmental impacts that arise during the transition process. They also pointed out technical difficulties that arise, criticized the state’s choices, and highlighted technical issues that need to be taken seriously into consideration. One significant concern they raised pertained to the widespread use (even for basic-electrical load fulfillment) of imported natural gas, and they expressed their concern about the premature fast decarbonization decisions. Another area of concern was the country’s energy dependence as a consequence of rapid lignite abandonment and the potential effects of energy transition measures on the living standards of local inhabitants. Of particular interest are also their view on soil restoration in the area as well as about the prospects of the existing assets after the retirement of the thermal units. Finally, the continuation of the District Heating Program, providing relatively affordable heat to the local population, is one of the topics of high interest.

The insights provided by the young scientists interviewed reveal a crucial aspect of Energy Transition, i.e., the necessity for a new energy-society interaction. This shift in the energy landscape is also affecting policymakers planning the lignite phasing out. It is evident that achieving progress and prosperity during the energy transition requires interdisciplinary teamwork and multilevel synergies. As already described, the Greek State has finally recognized this need and included it in the revised National Just Transition plan informally and as a prompt for the synergy between the bodies directly and indirectly involved in the current energy transition and the local society.

On the other hand, technology has always been a driving force in the evolution of economies. Its integration into the economy is essential for enhancing the living standards of citizens in modern societies, and mitigating the effects of the climate crisis should be at the forefront of policy considerations. The transfer of technology from Universities and Research Centers to society is definitely a vital practice. Due to its innovative character, the case of West Macedonia’s fast decarbonization is a study field and a real testbed case for assessing political decisions. It allows cutting-edge knowledge and advancements to be harnessed for real-world solutions and sustainable development. The Greek State, in the Just Transition Plan implementation, has already counted the national Universities and, more precisely, the University of West Macedonia as a key player in the Energy Transition of the region. Through knowledge transfer and synergies, universities can actively participate in modeling a sustainable, innovative future for local societies. Active citizens are becoming the most valuable resource of society.

The terms “co-creation” and “co-production” have been increasingly recognized as important mechanisms that allow citizens to participate in decision-making processes that affect the local community’s living quality. Citizens interact with the energy systems since they are both the subject and object of social innovation in the energy and society interaction, as they become emerging economic actors in the new energy markets [47]. Young scientists and specialized workforce can contribute to the just reform of the energy sector and lead local green energy transition. For all these arguments, the political leadership should take into account the opinion of the young scientists and the skilled workforce since they have a vested interest in the well-being of their local communities as they want to remain in the places they were born and raised during the new energy era.

6. Conclusions

The current research aims to investigate the process of green energy transition and electricity sector decarbonization in the EU with special emphasis on the impact of fast decarbonization in areas where large coal power stations are operating. For this reason, the Region of West Macedonia has been selected, which has been significantly impacted by the EU’s energy transition decision. To achieve this objective, the research utilizes comprehensive opinion survey data, with a specific emphasis on gathering the perspectives of young scientists. One of the major concerns of the local people is the retraining of the workforce of the region and the support of their professional rehabilitation. Additionally, preventing high unemployment in the region is a major challenge for both the state and the local authorities in order to restrain population migration and brain drain. The concerns of young scientists highlight this underlying problem of rural abandonment. The well-being and living standards of the people in the region should be a top priority for political decisions, in addition to addressing climate change and environmental concerns. The standard of living in a region is intricately linked to both the availability of jobs in the area and the level of involvement and participation of the local community in the planning of the green energy transition since every decision directly affects the future of the local society. Local authorities play a critical and indispensable role in the success of the energy transition. All these planned radical changes require their active participation, as they are uniquely positioned to understand the needs of the local community. The proximity of local authorities to the local society allows them to actively contribute to the design and implementation of socially just energy transition policy decisions. On top of the environmental concerns, the main concern of local society and local authorities is the successful use of these innovative solutions for the safe reorientation of the local economy.

Recapitulating, according to the expressed opinion of 100 well-informed young scientists—concerning energy transition issues—the main goal of the proposed energy transition study should be to enlighten and provide support and insights for policymakers to adopt policies and technological choices required to ensure a socially just green energy transition. This involves safeguarding the prosperity of the local communities involved. The successful implementation of policies supporting a sustainable energy transition can lead not only to a reliable transformation of the energy systems but also to a just socio-economic transition. This ensures active participation from local society and contributes to reviving the local economy. The case of West Macedonia represents one of the most challenging application examples in the EU, demanding a cautious and open-minded step-by-step implementation of the energy transition. To this end, the results of the above analysis highlight the threat of significant immigration and brain drain in similar cases if not handled appropriately. However, involvement in planned new green energy-related activities could offer a promising alternative solution, providing opportunities for sustainable growth and local engagement.