4.1. Establishment of the Vehicle model and the Control Module
This section shows the simulation part contains the vehicle model establishment based on the vehicle dynamics mentioned in
Section 2 and the ABS control modules based on
Section 3.
The braking situation is consideration a straight-line case. The initial condition is set as wheel slip ratio on dry road, and simulation results are chosen at initial vehicle velocity km/h. In addition, the force initial states influenced by the vehicle initial braking velocity, such as wheel rolling friction force and air resistant force, are considered.
Besides, this simulation is built based on the logic of the formula of the road condition curve, this curve is further improved and the curve shift disturbances are simulated to verify the robustness performance of this proposed ABS controller when resisting these curve changes. The drawback may be that only four typical road conditions are considered.
Firstly, select the front left wheel as an example to build the real test module. Before SMWSC starts, the vehicle is driven with the road condition automatic detection module under a fixed braking force during a short calculation period
s, shown in the left of
Figure 4. This short calculation period is the vehicle’s earliest braking stable time obtained through a short training [
28] on different road conditions with different initial braking velocities. After the calculation part of this module, shown in
Figure 3, the road condition is determined then given to the ABS control module. The outputs of the road condition automatic detection module are
,
and
, which are also considered as the input variables of the ABS controller’s input variables.
Figure 4 shows the entire brake control process, which is based on the control flow shown in
Figure 3 and contains two stages: The road automatic detection period and the ABS control period.
4.2. Simulation Results and Discussions
There have many indicators that measure the control performance of the ABS controller during the whole vehicle braking period; select the three most important options: The stop distance D is considered as the parameter that is finally displayed, the braking torque is the guarantee of the automobile motor’s lifetime and the wheel real-time slip ratio is the steering wheel controllable sign. The initial vehicle braking velocities 30 km/h, 40 km/h, 50 km/h, 60 km/h, 70 km/h, 80 km/h, 90 km/h and 100 km/h are all tested in this simulation. Besides, all simulations are simulated with different classic road conditions: Dry, wet, snow and ice roads.
This subsection first gives a comparison of the braking control performance of the vehicle with different types of ABS controllers: Normal PID-based CAB, improved PID-based CAB, fuzzy PID-based CAB and fuzzy sliding mode PID-based CAB. PID parameters used in these four CABs are set as the same values and shown in
Table 2. Considering that using the real-time data will largely increase the complexity of the analysis and using average data can largely show the trend of data, the comparison data used in the following three figures are all average values.
Figure 5,
Figure 6 and
Figure 7 show
D,
and
control performance comparison of different types of CABs on different road conditions with different initial vehicle velocities, separately.
Figure 5 show clearly the stop distance comparison:
The improved PID-based CAB has a little shorter D on dry road compared with a normal PID-based CAB. However, the D of the improved PID-based CAB is slightly longer than the normal PID-based CAB on snow roads and ice roads with all the initial vehicle velocities.
The stop distance of the two robustness type CABs are much shorter than the pure PID-based CABs on dry, wet, snow and ice roads with all the initial vehicle velocities.
The fuzzy PID-based CABs have longer stop distance compared with fuzzy sliding mode based-CABs on all four road conditions with all the initial vehicle velocities, especially on dry roads.
Figure 6 shows clearly the braking torque comparison:
The braking torque of a normal PID-based CAB is the largest one on all the four road conditions with all the initial vehicle velocities compared with the other three types of CABs. Besides, of this normal PID-based CAB on dry and wet roads is very similar and is also very similar on snow roads and ice roads.
The braking torque of the improved PID-based CAB is different on different road conditions with different initial vehicle velocities. Moreover, the improved PID-based CAB needs larger braking torque compared to the two robustness CABs, on almost all four kinds roads with different initial vehicle velocities.
The two robustness CABs, fuzzy PID-based CAB and fuzzy sliding mode-based CAB, need smaller braking torque compared with pure PID-based CABs on all road conditions with all initial vehicle velocities.
Figure 7 show real-time wheel slip ratio comparison clearly:
The wheel slip ratio of normal PID-based CABs is almost 1 on all road conditions with all initial vehicle velocities.
The wheel slip ratio of improved PID-based CABs is close to 1 on dry and wet roads with all initial vehicle velocities. Besides, the wheel slip ratio of improved PID-based CABs is almost equal to 1 on snow roads with 70 km/h, 80 km/h, 90 km/h and 100 km/h and on ice roads with 90 km/h and 100 km/h.
The wheel slip ratios of the two robustness CABs are small enough on all the four road conditions with all initial vehicle velocities compared with the other two pure PID-based CABs. In addition, the wheel slip ratios of these two robustness CABs are around on dry and wet roads and around on snow roads and ice roads; these slip ratios are all closer to the optimal slip ratio of different roads.
The conclusion obtained from the analysis in
Figure 5 is that the two robustness CABs have good braking control performance, as they can make the vehicle brake quickly. In
Figure 6, the pure PID-based CABs need higher braking torque and are almost unadjustable, which largely increases the energy loss and shortens the vehicle’s lifetime. In contrast, the robustness CABs require very little braking torque and can be flexibly adjusted for different road conditions.
Figure 7 shows the control performance analysis of wheel stability during vehicle braking. The wheel under control of pure PID CABs will quickly lock on all four road conditions with all velocities. However, the wheel under robustness CABs will maintain an anti-lock state during whole braking period.
From the analyses mentioned above, the only conclusion that can be drawn is that the robustness CABs have more prominent control performances. In order to better show the proposed SMWSC’s control advantages, the wheel real-time slip ratio and braking torque regulation on dry, wet, snow and ice roads are given in
Figure 8. The large image represents the entire braking process and the small image highlights the stage of the initial adjustment. Through the comparison of
and
, especially with the small images, the proposed SMWSC is verified to have better convergence and stability.
As is well known, once the ABS controller starts working, a set of operating parameters is fixed in SMWSC as the initial braking parameter. When the actual situation changes, the ABS controller will adjust the braking torque according to the feedback signal from the vehicle real test module. To have a deep study of SMWSC’s dependence on the road conditions and vehicle parameters during its control period, the following figures and tables are shown.
For the road condition disturbances, the
curve shifting left and right represents the road type change and moving up and down stands for the rough level change of road.
Figure 9 shows the curve
shifts left and right significantly on different road conditions, separately. In this figure, the original unchanged curve is the black line
s, other curves shift around this curve:
and
shift to the right and
and
shift to the left.
Table 3 gives the results data, where
is the original stop distance and
is the stop distance when the vehicle drives on the changed curve; thus,
is the control difference of the stop distance. Besides,
is the original average braking torque and
is the braking torque required by the ABS controller when the vehicle is driven on the corresponding road condition curve; thus,
is the control difference of the stop distance. In addition, select 30 km/h, 60 km/h, 80 km/h and 100 km/h to show comparison details.
From the comparison data shown in
Table 3, we can obtain that:
On dry roads, the keeps within m even if the curve shifts left and right; the largest one is m at 100 km/h. Correspondingly, the braking torque required by the ABS controller under these road conditions is similar and its difference remains within 5 N· m.
On wet roads, the keeps within m and the largest one is m at 100 km/h. To yield the small , the ABS controller will greatly adjust the braking torque, for example, N· m under road conditions.
On snow roads, the keeps within m; most difference remains below 1 m. Correspondingly, the braking torque required by the ABS controller under these road conditions is similar and its difference remains within 1.9 N· m.
On ice roads, the keeps within m; this data is below m under and . The braking torque required by the ABS controller under these road conditions is similar and its difference remains within 1 N· m.
Therefore, we can get the conclusion that this road condition change has little impact on braking control performance under SMWSC, which further verifies that this proposed SMWSC has enough abilities to adjust braking torque to resist these kinds of disturbances.
Table 3 gives the results data, where
is the original stop distance,
and
is the stop distance when vehicle drives on the changed curve; thus,
is the control difference of the stop distance. Besides,
is the original average braking torque and
is the braking torque required by the ABS controller when the vehicle is driven on the corresponding road condition curve; thus,
is the control difference of the stop distance. In addition, select 30 km/h, 60 km/h, 80 km/h and 100 km/h to show comparison details.
Figure 10 shows the curve
moves up and down significantly on different road conditions, separately. In this figure, the original unchanged curve is the black line
, other curves are moved around this curve:
and
move down and
and
move up.
Table 4 gives the result details of
D and
regulations, where definitions of
and
are similar to
Table 3. In addition, select 30 km/h, 60 km/h, 80 km/h and 100 km/h to show comparison details.
From the comparison data shown in
Table 4, we can obtain that:
On dry roads, the with 100 km/h is m, others remain below 8 m. In addition, the braking torque adjustment is relatively strong; the largest one is 132.868 N· m on road with 100 km/h.
On wet roads, increases and also increases. The largest one is m, 149.386 N· m) on road with 100 km/h.
On snow roads, and all have large values; the largest one is m, 17.9476 N· m) on road with 100 km/h.
On ice roads, and still have large values, the largest is m on road with 100 km/h, the largest is 17.146 N· m on road with 80 km/h.
Obviously, the change of
has a little bit of an influence on control performance, especially on snow and ice roads. It can also be seen from
Figure 1, that even a slight change of
can have a large difference on
. In other words, the ABS controller needs to increase the modulation intensity to a large extent to meet the trend of
change. Therefore, this proposed ABS controller’s robustness ability to handle this disturbance is not strong enough.
For the vehicle parameters disturbances, this paper only considers the most common factor vehicle mass M here.
Table 5 shows the comparison results,
M is the original vehicle mass is unchanged and 0.9M means the vehicle mass decreases to 90%M, while 1.1M, 1.2M and 1.3M denote that the vehicle mass increase; besides,
is the stop distance difference.
is the braking torque difference.
From the comparison data shown in
Table 5, we can obtain that:
On dry roads, and are all very small; the largest is m with 1.3M and 80 km/h; the largest is 118.545 N· m with 1.3M and 100 km/h
On wet roads, are all below m; the largest is m with 1.3M and 100 km/h; the largest is 82.724 N· m with 1.3M and 60 km/h
On snow roads, are all below m; the largest is m with 1.3M and 100 km/h; the largest is 118.545 N· m with 1.3M and 60 km/h
On ice roads, are all below m; the largest is m with 1.3M and 100 km/h; the largest is 118.545 N· m with 1.3M and 60 km/h.
It is clear that, even though the
is near
m on ice roads with 1.3M and 100 km/h, it still can be considered as relatively small compared to the real stop distance shown in
Figure 5. Therefore, the conclusion can be obtained that the SMWSC has enough robustness to overcome the change effect of vehicle mass on dry, wet and snow roads.
All the above results are given based on known road conditions; however, the road condition is unknown when the vehicle is driven during the braking period. Therefore, the road detection module is added to improve road condition automatic detection performance of SMWSC.
Figure 11 shows the changes in integral action parameters inside the fuzzy PID control module. As all know, the parameters of the conventional PID controller are fixed after the controller’s design; however, PID parameters are designed with the adaptive capability after being combined with the fuzzy control part.
Figure 12 shows the adaptive changes of the wheel slip ratio error
and
; besides,
Figure 13 shows the output parameters of the fuzzy control module.
Select
km/h and dry road as an example to describe the whole braking process, which control details are shown in
Figure 14. The road condition automatic detection module firstly works and gives the road condition after the calculation period
. Then the SMWSC starts to adjust the
and lets the vehicle drive under the stable anti-lock braking situation until it stops.
Figure 15 shows the adaptive changes of sliding mode surfaces during the whole ABS control period. In addition,
Figure 16 shows the parameter change details of the sliding model control module.