1. Introduction
The ocean is an important strategic space to ensure sustainable development. Seawater temperature is one of the significant parameters in the marine environment; detecting and mastering the real-time change and space–time distribution is a major content of marine observation [
1]. Global ocean temperature usually varies between −2 and 30 °C, and more than 50% of the oceans have an average seawater temperature higher than 20 °C annually. The ocean temperature in the deep sea is relatively stable, and the average daily variation is about 0.001 °C. In order to detect the small changes in seawater temperature, the measurement accuracy and temperature range of current frontier research is required to be ±0.001 °C and about 5–30 °C.
At present, the demand for ocean temperature sensors is mainly in miniaturization, high accuracy, large range and high stability. Traditional electrical temperature detectors are expensive, and it is difficult to establish a wide-coverage submarine observation network. A fiber grating sensor uses an optical fiber as the medium to sense and transmit external signals through light. The measurement method mainly depends on the wavelength demodulation. The interference of optical fiber bending, connection loss, light source fluctuation and other problems is small [
2]. After calibration, an absolute measurement can be realized, which is convenient for reuse and array measurements. Fiber grating sensors have the characteristics of small size, electrical insulation, high sensitivity and electrical insulation, and have been extensively used in displacement sensing, strain sensing, temperature sensing, refraction measurement sensing, and other fields [
3]. According to the sensing principle, the fiber optic technology of temperature sensing mainly includes fiber grating (FG), interferometer optic fiber systems (OFS) [
4,
5,
6], photogenic crystal fiber (PCF)-based [
7], surface plasmon resonance (SPR) [
8], optical microfiber coupler (OMC) [
9,
10], etc. Interferometer sensors include the Fabry–Pérot interferometer (FPI) [
4], the Mach–Zehnder interferometer (MZI) [
5], the Sagnac interferometer (SI) [
6], etc. Most interferometer OFS can only be used for single- or dual-parameter sensing, and there are some problems, such as limited sensitivity and poor structural stability. For PCF sensors, highly sensitive temperature sensing can be achieved by filling the holes of the PCF with specific refractive index-matching fluid (IMF). SPR sensors generally have high sensitivity and can meet the requirements of high-precision testing in the marine environment. The performance of OMC sensors can be comparable to commercial electrical sensors. However, the key problems of fiber optic sensors, such as environmental adaptability and multi-parameter cross-sensitive demodulation, need to be further studied [
11]. Fiber grating is classified into fiber Bragg grating (FBG) and long-period fiber grating (LPFG) according to the size of the grating period. The temperature sensitivity of ordinary FBG and LPG is about 10 pm/°C and 100 pm/°C, respectively [
12,
13]. In order to achieve the measurement requirement of ±0.001 °C, the temperature sensing sensitivity should be more than 1 nm/°C when using commonly used fiber grating demodulators with an accuracy of 1 pm. Therefore, it is necessary to further increase the temperature sensitivity of fiber grating sensors [
14] by comparing the basic performance of sensors. Although FG sensors have relatively low sensitivity, their strong stability and environmental adaptability give them strong application value [
15].
In recent years, with the rapid development of thin film technology, the combination of fiber grating technology with materials, chemistry, biology and other technologies has opened up many new applications of LPFG. By coating specific materials (such as metal, polymers, etc.) on fiber gratings, multi-parameter sensing can be realized, and the problem of cross-sensitivity of multi-parameters can be solved [
15]. By coating nanofilm with a high refractive index on the fiber surface, the refractive index sensitization can be effectively realized. Titanium dioxide (TiO
2) is widely used in the optical and biological fields due to its high refractive index, non-toxicity and high biocompatibility. Sensors made of fiber grating sputtered with TiO
2 have been widely used in refractive index measurements [
16,
17]. In order to obtain higher sensitivity, thermosensitive materials with a high thermoluminescence coefficient and thermal expansion coefficient have attracted increasing attention from researchers. These have been successfully applied to improve the response of optical fiber sensors to temperature [
13]. Packaging a high refractive index layer is conducive to the conversion between the cladding guide mode and the coating guide mode, avoiding the problem of cross-sensitivity between the temperature and SRI [
12]. Recently, temperature measurement has been mainly realized by packaging with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [
18], polyacrylate (PAA) [
12,
19], urethane acrylate [
20], polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) [
13,
21,
22] and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) [
23,
24,
25], but the temperature test ranges still cannot meet the needs of marine measurement.
In this study, a new sensor with high sensitivity was achieved by using a special long-period fiber grating doped with Ge and B. According to the mode coupling theory, by sputtering TiO2 nanofilm on the side of LPFG, we can achieve a preliminary refractive index sensitization. Then, by packaging the material with a high thermoluminescence coefficient, the refractive index sensitivity is converted into temperature sensitivity by using the change of the refractive index of the packaging material with temperature. Because the sensor needs to be immersed in the ocean for a long time in practical applications, we test the impact of seawater salinity and marine biological protein adhesion on the sensor. Through the surface modification of the chimeric polymer coating, the anti-protein adhesion ability of the sensor is improved, which provides a reference for improving its stability in the marine environment. When the 10 nm-thick TiO2 film is sputtered on the surface of Ge and B co-doped LPFG and packaged with PC452 UV-curable adhesive, the maximum temperature measurement range is 5–30 °C, and the maximum temperature sensitivity and temperature resolution would be 3.8 nm/°C and 0.00026 °C if the resolution of the optical spectrum analyzer was 1 pm, which meets the test requirements of ocean temperature sensing.
2. Theory and Simulation
Modes can characterize the distribution of light waves in space. When the fiber is modulated, such as when the refractive index or structure size changes, the modes in the core and cladding undergo energy transfer, which is called mode coupling. LPFG belongs to the transmissive fibers, and its internal mode coupling comes from the energy transfer of the basic mode and cladding mode, both of which propagate along the forward direction. When LPFG is fabricated on a single-mode fiber, its periodic modulation changes the dielectric constant and the orthogonal independent of the mode of the fiber. Its refractive index variation is usually less than 10−2, and the existence of the gate region will not have a significant impact on the distribution of the eigenmode field. Each coupling mode can be regarded as a linear superposition of different eigenmodes, so we only need to consider the energy transfer between the different modes.
2.1. Theory of LPFG Refractive Index Sensing
The four-layer cylindrical waveguide model of the fiber core–cladding–nanofilm external environment is shown in
Figure 1b. The refractive index of the core material, cladding material, film material and SRI are set to
,
,
and
, respectively.
According to the mode coupling theory, the resonant peak wavelength,
, of an ideal LPGF is:
where
and
are the effective refractive indices of the core mode and cladding modes, and
is the period of the LPFG. The starting point of the LPFG modulation range is regarded as the origin, and the energy value of the LPFG fundamental mode at the origin is regarded as 1 (
). When the light wave passes through the grid region with a distance of
L, the energy in the fundamental mode will be transferred to the cladding mode. The residual energy in the fundamental mode at the end of the gate area is
, and the expression of LPFG transmissivity is derived:
wherein
and
are the coupling coefficients of “AC” and “DC”. The above formula can be used to calculate the transmission spectrum generated when the basic mode in the core of the LPFG is coupled with a mode in the cladding. The complete transmission spectrum of the LPFG can be obtained by superposition of the transmission spectra of all the modes in the cladding. When
changes, the energy in the LPFG core will be coupled to the cladding, and the
of the transmission spectrum will shift because of the influence of the evanescent field. Due to the low refractive index sensitivity and limited measurement range of ordinary LPFG, we can greatly improve the SRI sensitivity of LPFG by coating nanofilms on the surface of LPFG with high refractive index materials that are much higher than that of optic fiber’s cladding [
12].
The effective refractive index of the cladding mode is modulated by , film thickness and at the same time. When is raised to a certain threshold, the optical field in the cladding undergoes mode conversion. The range of that causes the mode conversion is called the conversion region. According to Formula (1), in the conversion region, changes rapidly and the also has a large drift, so it has a high refractive index sensitivity. The mode conversion phenomenon of LPFG can provide a reference for the enhancement of refractive index and temperature sensitivity.
2.2. Simulation of Mode Coupling Theory of Coated LPFG
We established a four-layer model in OptiGrating software to simulate the transmission spectrum and resonance peak offset of LPFG, as shown in
Figure 1. The simulation data of ordinary single-mode optical fibers and special single-mode optical fibers co-doped with Ge and B are as
Table 1.
The parameter of grating is set to the period length of 400 μm, the number of periods of 60,
= 2.163, and the film thickness of 15 nm, 25 nm and 50 nm, respectively. In the range of
from 1.33 to 1.146, the response of the
of each cladding mode to
at the simulated wavelength of 1550 nm is shown in
Figure 2.
When the coating thickness is 10 nm, the
offset in the LP (0.5)–LP (0.8) mode with the SRI is shown in
Figure 3a. It is easy to see that the sensitivity of the
of the LP (0.5) mode is significantly lower than that of the LP (0.8) mode. The sensitivity of the refractive index sensing increases as the mode order increases. Therefore, within the measurement and demodulation range of the sensing system, the better refractive index sensing sensitivity can be obtained by selecting the
of the mode with the higher mode for analysis.
According to the analysis in 2.1, when approaches (1.45–1.46), mode conversion occurs. With the sample coated film with the 10 nm thickness, the mode conversion range of LP (0.5) and LP (0.6) modes is 1.44–1.45, which is closer to than the other modes. Because the refractive index sensitivity of the higher mode is better, LP (0.6) is chosen for the simulation and comparison.
Figure 3b compares the relationship between the
of the LP (0.6) mode and
. It can be seen from
Figure 2 and
Figure 3b that, with the increase in the film thickness, the slope of the
–
curve becomes slower. The range of the mode conversion region becomes larger and moves to the shortwave direction. With the same film thickness, the
–
curve slope of higher-order modes in the conversion region is relatively larger. This means that the corresponding resonant peak has higher sensing sensitivity.
Figure 4 shows the response of the
of the LP (0.6)–LP (0.9) mode when the coating thickness is 50 nm,
= 1.0, and
changes from 1.5 to 3.5. When
is in the range of 2.1–2.4, the mode is converted to a higher order. In the conversion region, the
and
shift sharply, so
also has a great impact on the mode coupling of LPFG.
When setting
= 2.163 and
= 1.0, we simulated the change of the effective refractive index and
of the LP (0.6)–LP (0.9) mode in the range of coating thickness from 0–700 nm, as shown in
Figure 5. When the film thickness changes from 60 nm to 120 nm, the cladding modes convert to the higher modes in turn. Continuing to increase the coating thickness shows that the mode conversion phenomenon is periodic.
2.3. Theory of LPFG Temperature Sensing
Using Formula (1), we can derive the analytic expression for the temperature sensitivity of the resonant wavelength as [
26]:
where
α is the coefficient of thermal expansion; and
γ describes the waveguide dispersion and is defined by [
27]:
is also known as the general sensitivity factor.
describes the temperature dependence of the waveguide dispersion and is defined by:
where
and
are the thermoluminescence coefficients of the core and cladding materials, respectively. Due to the influence of
and
, when the surrounding temperature changes,
,
and the parameters of LPFG will be affected, which causes the shift of the resonant peak. Concerning the different order of the coupling mode, the temperature sensitivity also varies greatly.
Figure 6 shows the simulation of the temperature sensitivity of cladding mode LP (0.6) in two kinds of LPFG (the grating period is 400 μm; the number of periods is 60). When the initial properties of LPFG (
, refractive index modulation distribution, number of coupled modes m) are consistent, with the increase in the surrounding temperature, the
offset of these two kinds of LPFG will be exactly reverse. The response of ordinary single-mode LPFG is the red shift, with a sensitivity of about 0.1125 nm/°C, while the
of the Ge and B co-doped LPFG will shift blue, with a sensitivity of about −0.659 nm/°C, which is more than five times the ordinary single-mode LPFG.
However, the temperature sensitivity of unpackaged samples needs to be enhanced. Due to coated LPFG having high refractive index sensitivity, the mechanism of high thermoluminescence coefficient packaged LPFG is to transfer the high refractive index sensitivity to high temperature sensitivity and avoid the problem of cross-sensitivity between the temperature and
[
19,
23]. Because the diameter of the LPFG is small, the refractive index of the packaging material can be seen as
. When the temperature changes, the expression of the relative change of
is:
where
is the temperature response factor of LPFG;
is the force response factor;
and
are the thermal expansion coefficients of the packaging and the LPFG itself.
characterizes the position shift caused by the packaging layer (SRI) in response to the ambient temperature [
26]:
where
is the m-th root of the zeroth-order Bessel function of the first kind;
is the radius of the fiber cladding. It can be seen from Formula (7) that when the surrounding temperature changes, there are three main factors for the offset of the
of the PLPFG:
- (1)
The thermal expansion and thermoluminescence coefficient of the LPFG’s materials;
- (2)
The thermal expansion of the packaging material;
- (3)
The thermoluminescence coefficient of the packaging material.
2.4. Simulation of Temperature Sensing Response Time
The thermodynamic analysis of the sensor structure is carried out by finite element analysis (FEA). The FEA model of the coated LPFG is established, as shown in
Figure 7a. The film thickness is much lower than the UV-curing adhesive packaging. The thermal conductivity of the core and the cladding are almost the same, and the coated LPFG can be seen as a single material cylinder. The geometric parameters of the model are set as follows: the diameter of the coated LPFG is 125 μm, and the diameter of the sensor is 2 mm. The tetrahedral division method is selected for the grid division. The maximum side length of all the grids is selected to be 0.1 mm, and the side length of the local grids in the coating grating part is set to be 0.02 mm for the grid refinement. With the thermal conductivity of the LPFG material set to 1.46 W/(m·K), the specific heat is 722 J/(kg·K), the thermal conductivity of the packaging material is 0.4 W/(m·K), and the specific heat of the coating material is 1740 J/(kg·K). The temperature load is added to the side of the cylindrical model as the surrounding temperature changes, and the convection boundary condition is added to the end-face of the model. The default value of the convective heat transfer coefficient in a uniform water environment (1.2 × 10
−3 W/(mm
2/°C)) was selected.
In this paper, the temperature response time of the sensor is defined as the time that the temperature of fiber core takes to change by 90% of the difference between the surrounding temperature and the initial temperature when the surrounding temperature changes step-by-step. The response time is linked to the thickness and thermal conductivity of the packaging material.
Figure 7b shows when the initial temperature of the sensors is set to 20 °C, the surrounding temperature is set to 30 °C, the temperature change curve of the fiber core and the cross-section temperature distribution of the sensor when the core temperature reaches 29 °C.