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Article

Distribution of Bacterial Endosymbionts of the Cardinium Clade in Plant-Parasitic Nematodes

by
Sergey V. Tarlachkov
1,
Boris D. Efeykin
2,
Pablo Castillo
3,
Lyudmila I. Evtushenko
1 and
Sergei A. Subbotin
2,4,5,*
1
All-Russian Collection of Microorganisms (VKM), G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia
2
Center of Parasitology of A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii Prospect 33, Moscow 117071, Russia
3
Institute for Sustainable Agriculture (IAS), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Avenida Menéndez Pidal s/n, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, 14004 Córdoba, Spain
4
California Department of Food and Agriculture, Plant Pest Diagnostic Center, Sacramento, CA 95832, USA
5
Department of Entomology and Nematology, Hutchison Hall, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(3), 2905; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032905
Submission received: 6 December 2022 / Revised: 27 January 2023 / Accepted: 31 January 2023 / Published: 2 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Bacteria-Invertebrate Interactions)
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Abstract

:
Bacteria of the genus “Candidatus Cardinium” and related organisms composing the Cardinium clade are intracellular endosymbionts frequently occurring in several arthropod groups, freshwater mussels and plant-parasitic nematodes. Phylogenetic analyses based on two gene sequences (16S rRNA and gyrB) showed that the Cardinium clade comprised at least five groups: A, B, C, D and E. In this study, a screening of 142 samples of plant-parasitic nematodes belonging to 93 species from 12 families and two orders using PCR with specific primers and sequencing, revealed bacteria of Cardinium clade in 14 nematode samples belonging to 12 species of cyst nematodes of the family Heteroderidae. Furthermore, in this study, the genome of the Cardinium cHhum from the hop cyst nematode, Heterodera humuli, was also amplified, sequenced and analyzed. The comparisons of the average nucleotide identity (ANI) and digital DNA–DNA hybridization (dDDH) values for the strain Cardinium cHhum with regard to related organisms with available genomes, combined with the data on 16S rRNA and gyrB gene sequence identities, showed that this strain represents a new candidate species within the genus “Candidatus Paenicardinium”. The phylogenetic position of endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade detected in nematode hosts was also compared to known representatives of this clade from other metazoans. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on analysis of 16S rRNA, gyrB, sufB, gloEL, fusA, infB genes and genomes and estimates of genetic distances both indicate that the endosymbiont of the root-lesion nematode Pratylenchus penetrans represented a separate lineage and is designated herein as a new group F. The phylogenetic analysis also confirmed that endosymbionts of ostracods represent the novel group G. Evolutionary relationships of bacterial endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade within invertebrates are presented and discussed.

1. Introduction

The genus “Candidatus Cardinium” (Bacteroidetes) was proposed for intracellular endosymbiotic bacteria [1] which were first discovered in deer tick Ixodes scapularis [2], and then in mite Brevipalpus phoenicis [3] and Encarsia wasps [1]. Since then, members of Cardinium phylogenetic clade comprising both “Candidatus Cardinium” sensu stricto and the related bacteria found in several arthropod groups, freshwater mussels and plant-parasitic nematodes have often been referred to as Cardinium or Cardinium bacteria for convenience. Currently, there is an estimated 6 to 23% or more of tested arthropod species, which carry endosymbionts from the Cardinium clade. However, its incidence is rather heterogeneous among arthropod groups [3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11].
The Cardinium and Cardinium-related symbionts have a wide variety of impacts on host individuals, including feminization, parthenogenesis induction, and cytoplasmic incompatibility [1,2,12]. These may also be mutualistic endosymbionts and may have a potential role in wasp nutrition [13].
Phylogenetic analyses based on two gene sequences (16S rRNA and gyrB) showed that the Cardinium clade comprised at least five groups. Group A, which includes the genus “Candidatus Cardinium” sensu stricto and related organisms, is the largest and the most studied group; members of this group have been found in various arthropod groups: hymenopteran insects, hemipteran insects, mites, opilionids and spiders. This group comprises several putative species, if the similarity values of 16S rRNA gene sequences reported by Noel and Atibalentja [14] and Nakamura et al. [8] are to be considered; these are clearly below the prokaryote species threshold, 98.65% [15]. Group B is noted in plant-parasitic nematodes and includes “Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii” described for endosymbionts of the plant-parasitic soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines [14], and the group C is observed in the biting midges species of the genus Culicoides [8]. The above three groups were proposed to integrate into a single species “Candidatus Cardinium hertii” [8]. However, low 16S rRNA gene identities (reportedly 92.8–96.3%) [8,14] between members of these groups are indicative of the presence here of at least three genera taking into consideration the recommended genus borderline (94.5% or 95.0%) and current trend in prokaryote systematics to divide polyphyletic genera into monophyletic ones [16,17,18,19]. Subsequently, group D (93–94% of 16S rRNA sequence identity to the closest sister clade, group C) was reported in a single marine copepod species, Nitocra spinipes, and presumed to occur in other copepods, while a representative of group E was found in a single mite species, Achipteria coleoptrata [20,21,22].
Together with the aforementioned H. glycines [14], intracellular symbionts from the Cardinium phylogenetic clade were discovered by molecular methods in some other plant-parasitic nematodes, such as the Chinese cereal cyst nematode, H. sturhani [23], the root-lesion nematode, P. penetrans from the USA [24,25,26] and the spiral nematode Rotylenchus zhongshanensis from China [27]. It has been suggested that some intracellular bacterium-like (Rickettsia-like) organisms revealed in early studies by transmission electron and light microscopy may belong to the Cardinium clade as well. These include symbionts of the potato cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis from Bolivia [28,29,30], the pea cyst nematode Heterodera goettingiana from England [28], and the soybean cyst nematode H. glycines from the USA [31], as well as the bacterium recently detected in Bursaphelenchus mucronatus [32]. Up until now, there have been no published survey investigations on the occurrence of bacterial endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade within a wide range of plant-parasitic nematode species.
In the present study, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers designed to amplify the Cardinium 16S ribosomal RNA gene of Cardinium and Cardinium-related symbionts were used to screen a large collection of plant-parasitic nematodes in order to estimate the distribution of that symbiotic bacterium and to determine the limits of its host range. We also present an annotated draft genome for a new strain of the Cardinium clade recovered from the hop cyst nematode, Heterodera humuli, and provide results of comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of the Cardinium clade, while erecting new molecular groups within it.

2. Results

2.1. Distribution of Cardinium and Cardinium-Related Endosymbionts in Plant-Parasitic Nematodes

In order to estimate the infection rate by endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade and explore their host range and distribution, DNA extracted from plant-parasitic nematode species was screened using primers designed to amplify a portion of the Cardinium 16S ribosomal rRNA gene. Of 142 screened DNA nematode samples belonging to 93 species from 12 families of two orders of plant-parasitic nematodes, a PCR product of expected length of 482 bp was observed from 14 samples belonging to 12 species of cyst nematodes of the family Heteroderidae (Table 1 and Table S1). A total of 81 samples of cyst nematodes belonging to 39 species of the subfamilies Heteroderinae and Punctoderinae were tested. Endosymbionts were found in four genera of this family: Cactodera (two species), Heterodera (eight species), Globodera (one species) and Punctodera (one species) (Table 1). Cardinium was detected in only 1/4 populations of H. avenae, 2/3 of H. latipons, 2/9 of H. mediterranea, 1/2 of H. salixophila and 1/10 of G. rostochiensis (Table S1). Cardinium-specific gyrB primers were only applied for nematode samples, which showed positive results with Cardinium-specific 16S rRNA primers. PCR products and sequences of the gyrB gene fragment were obtained from 13 samples (Table 1).

2.2. Phylogenetic Relationships among Representatives of Cardinium Clade from Plant-Parasitic Nematodes and Other Host Organisms

Relationships of 16S rRNA gene sequences obtained from plant-parasitic nematodes are given in Figure 1A. Some relationships are not well supported because of a low informative signal in the gene fragment. Relationships within the Cardinium clade based on the gyrB gene fragment sequences are presented in Figure 1B.
Several methods have been applied to study relationships within the Cardinium clade: (i) statistical parsimony analysis of short fragments of 16S rRNA gene sequences available in the GenBank (Figure S1); (ii) Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analysis of nucleotide sequences of 16S rRNA (Figure 2), gyrB (Figure 3A), sufB (Figure S2A), gloEL (Figure S2C), fusA (Figure S2E), and infB (Figure S3A) genes; (iii) Bayesian inference analysis of amino acid sequences of gyrB (Figure 3B), sufB (Figure S2B), gloEL (Figure S2D), fusA (Figure S2F), and infB (Figure S3B) genes from selected organisms belonging to different groups and (iv) distance-based analysis of genome assemblies (Figure S5).
A phylogenetic network for the 16S rRNA gene sequences (432 sequences, alignment length-461 bp) reconstructed using statistical parsimony (SP) and a tree derived from these gene sequences (27 sequences, 1464 bp) reconstructed using BI and ML are given in Figure S1 and Figure 2, respectively. These methods allowed the discrimination of five known (A–E) and two new (F, G) groups within the Cardinium clade. The new group F included the endosymbiont from the root-lesion nematode of P. penetrans, and the new group G included bacteria from ostracods. In Cardinium, the largest substitution differences in the 16S rRNA gene were between Cardinium of H. glycines (1448 bp) and bacteria of Nitocra spinipes (855 bp)-7.7% and between Cardinium of H. humuli (1448 bp) and bacteria of N. spinipes-7.3%. The sequence of the new group F differed between 4.6 and 4.8% from those of group B. The intragroup variation for group B was 4.2%. The smallest difference of the group F sequence was 3.5% with that of Cardinium of Tetranychus urticae. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of the new group G differed by 5.3–7.2% from sequences of other groups.
Phylogenetic relationships within the Cardinium clade as inferred from the analyses of gyrB, sufB, gloEL, fusA, infB genes are given in Figure 3, Figures S2 and S3. Sequences of Cardinium of P. penetrans designated as the molecular group F did not form a clade with sequences of Cardinium of Heterodera spp. in the majority of trees, except for the nucleotide gloEL and amino acid infB gene trees.
The phylogenomic tree inferred from 15 bacterial genomes of the Cardinium clade using JolyTree is given in Figure S5. Cardinium of group A was monophyletic, while Cardinium of P. penetrans formed a separated lineage and Cardinium of H. glycines and H. humuli had a sister relationship.

2.3. Genome Features of Endosymbiont of Heterodera humuli

Genome sequencing and assembly details are listed in Table 2 and Table S2. Data are deposited in NCBI with the accession number JAOPFT000000000.1. Draft genome assembled form 3,523,302 paired end reads of 150 bp length, obtained from Illumina NovaSeq. The assembly consisted of 141 scaffolds with an N50 of 83,838 bp, a longest scaffold of 244,505 bp, and a total length of 1,056,324 bp. Genome coverage was 452. This genome revealed 38.55% G+C, 935 predicted proteins, 3 rRNA, 36 tRNA genes and three ncRNAs, with 80.8% of the genome comprising coding regions and 29.8% of predicted proteins having no known function. There was no evidence of a plasmid. There were at least two variants of gyrB and gloEL gene sequences for the endosymbiont of H. humuli, and these variants have 0.1% and 0.4% nucleotide differences, respectively, and differed in one amino acid. Genome details compared to two other members of the Cardinium clade are listed in Table 2.
In general, genomes of the above three strains have similar characteristics (Table 2). Only slight variations were observed; for instance, the cHhum genome is the smallest while having the largest G + C content. Among these genomes (Figure S4; Table S3), greater orthogroups overlap was observed between cHhum and cHgTN10 (649 shared orthogroups) than between cHhum and cPpe (500 shared orthogroups); overlap between all genomes comprises 491 orthogroups. Core overlap consists of 1654 genes across all three genomes; 13% genes had an unknown function. At the same time, 85 orthogroups (100 genes in total) are unique for the cHhum genome and contain 61% genes with an unknown function.
The values of average nucleotide identity (ANI) and digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) based on a genome-to-genome sequence comparison calculated for strain Cardinium cHhum from the hop cyst nematode, Heterodera humuli, with regard to related organisms with available genomes are shown in Table S4. The values determined were in the range of 68.90–93.96% (ANI) and 19–55% (dDDH), with the highest values revealed between Cardinium cHhum and Cardinium cHgTN10 (93.96% and 55%, respectively). These are clearly below 95–96% (ANI) and 70% (DDH) used as boundaries for prokaryote species delineation [33,34]. No data were reported on the genome sequence for the type strain of “Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii” at the time of its description. However, the high identities of 16S rRNA and gyrB genes of Cardinium cHgTN10 and the above type strain (100% and >99.5%, respectively) together with the same nematode host species of these strains, indicate that Cardinium cHgTN10 belongs to the species “Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii”, and therefore Cardinium cHhum from H. humuli represents a new candidate species in the genus “Candidatus Paenicardinium”.
Table
Table 2. Assembly details and genome features for strains of Cardinium clade; endosymbionts of plant-parasitic nematodes.
Table 2. Assembly details and genome features for strains of Cardinium clade; endosymbionts of plant-parasitic nematodes.
CharacteristicsCardinium cHhumCardinium cHgTN10Cardinium cPpe
GenBank accession no.JAOPFT000000000.1CP029619.1RARA00000000.1
ReferenceThis studyShowmaker et al. [35]Brown et al. [25]
HostHeterodera humuliHeterodera glycinesPratylenchus penetrans
Coverage (×)4523015
No. of scaffolds141- †27
Scaffold N50 (bp)83,838- †163,560
Assembly size (bp)1,056,3241,193,0421,358,212
G+C content (%)38.638.235.8
No. of protein-coding genes935943 ‡1075 ‡
No. of hypothetical proteins279263 ‡255 ‡
No. of rRNAs33 ‡3 ‡
No. of tRNAs3637 ‡38 ‡
No. of ncRNAs32 ‡3 ‡
No. of pseudo genes3034 ‡115 ‡
Coding regions length (%)80.881.1 ‡76.9 ‡
† Complete genome. ‡ RefSeq annotation.

3. Discussion

It has been shown by many studies that some taxonomic groups, such as parasitic wasps, mites, and spiders, show high frequencies of infection by the bacterial endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade, while the majority of arthropod groups are either free of or seldom harbor these bacteria [36]. Our survey of 93 plant-parasitic species revealed that endosymbionts of this phylogenetic group are widespread only in cyst-forming nematodes of the family Heteroderidae. These occurred in 12 (30%) of the 39 tested species of cyst-forming nematodes. Our results confirmed the presence of these bacteria in the potato cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis from Bolivia and the pea cyst nematode, H. goettingiana, in which this bacterium has been previously detected by microscopic method only [28], and also revealed Cardinium in Cactodera rosae, Cactodera sp., H. humuli, H. ripae, H. salixophila, H. latipons and Punctodera chalcoensis, in which this intracellular endosymbiont has not been reported earlier. Discovery of two variants of gyrB and gloEL gene sequences of Cardinium cHhum may indicate the presence of two different functional copies of the above genes in this bacterium or the presence of two strains of this bacterium in H. humuli.
It has been revealed in several studies that lateral transfer of Wolbachia genome fragments into the host nuclear genome has occurred in arthropods and nematodes that carry live infections [37,38,39]. In one case, the inserted Wolbachia genes were transcribed within eukaryotic cells lacking an endosymbiont [38]. The possibility cannot be excluded that lateral transfer of Cardinium genome fragments could also occur into the nematode nuclear genome, that might potentially lead to a false positive detection result of the presence of alive symbionts in a host using a species-specific PCR approach. It has been also shown that the majority of the potential protein-coding genes in the Wolbachia-like fragments in host genomes contained many insertions, deletions, frameshift mutations or nonsense codons compared to their homologues from living Wolbachia genomes [37,38]. Considering the fact that our sequence analysis showed the presence of functional copies of the gyrB gene obtained in the results of amplification and the fact of previous microscopic detections of intracellular bacterium-like in cyst nematodes [28,29,30,31], we believe that live infections and not cases of palaeosymbiosis have been detected in our samples. FISH (fluorescence in-situ hybridization) might be done to reveal locations of endosymbionts within nematode bodies in future studies.
Comparison of phylogenetic relationships of endosymbionts from the Cardinium clade found in cyst-forming nematodes using 16S rRNA and gyrB genes with phylogeny of the nematodes reconstructed based on ITS rRNA, 28S rRNA and other nematode genes [40] did not reveal strict co-phylogenetic patterns that would indicate a possible horizontal transmission of these symbionts among cyst-forming nematodes, and which could occur among species inhabiting similar localities. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that endosymbionts of cyst-forming nematodes belonging to the subfamily Punctoderinae formed two separate clades that were likely transferred independently at least twice to this group.
Currently, limited information is available on the effects of endosymbionts from the Cardinium clade on plant-parasitic nematodes. Walsh et al. [30] noticed that stored, hatched second-stage juveniles of G. rostochiensis appeared to contain more microorganisms than newly hatched juveniles; however, no obvious signs of pathogenicity were observed. Uninfected juveniles apparently lived longer than infected ones in vitro, probably because infected juveniles exhausted their lipid reserves sooner than uninfected juveniles. The study of nematode symbionts is important, as the symbiosis may potentially have an impact on the physiology of a host and this knowledge could be used for nematode control.
Stouthamer et al. [41] noticed the issue of obtaining enough bacterial DNA for sequencing, particularly from hosts that were rather small, because the absolute amount of bacterial DNA per host is at least somewhat proportional to host body size. These authors proposed a protocol designed to enrich endosymbiont DNA in samples, particularly for hosts that were small and/or harbored endosymbionts at relatively low densities. This extraction technique produces a higher yield of endosymbiont-enriched DNA of a quality and length appropriate for long and short read libraries. In our study, we used whole genome amplification of single cysts to enrich DNA, and this procedure allowed us to increase the DNA yield and led to higher read numbers by factors of 20 in sequence datasets.
At the time of writing, whole and draft genomes of nematode endosymbionts from the Cardinium phylogenetic group have been assembled and published only for strains from H. glycines [35] and P. penetrans [25]. In this work we present an annotated draft genome sequence of endosymbionts for a third plant-parasitic nematode species, H. humuli. Genome analysis suggested a greater similarity between endosymbionts of two cyst-forming nematodes.
Phylogenetic analyses of members of the Cardinium clade based on two gene sequences (16S rRNA and gyrB) suggested the existence of at least five groups designated as A, B, C, D and E. Group B originally included “Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii” from H. glycines [8] and was then supplemented with endosymbiont of P. penetrans [25]. However, our analysis of phylogenetic patterns and genetic distances using several genes and genomes revealed that this P. penetrans endosymbiont forms a separate lineage (the new molecular group designated F). Group B, on the other hand, includes Cardinium cHhum and other nematode symbionts. The comparisons of ANI and dDDH values and the sequences of 16S rRNA gene and the gyrB nucleotide and amino acid sequences showed that Cardinium cHhum represents a new candidate species within the genus “Candidatus Paenicardinium”.
We confirmed the presence of other groups reported (A, B, C, E) and suggest another new group G from ostracods. Schön et al. [42] found evidence for the general presence of Cardinium bacteria in natural populations of various non-marine ostracod species. These authors also showed, based on 16S rRNA gene data phylogenetic reconstructions, that bacteria from ostracods represented a novel lineage with a monophyletic origin, but a new group was not erected. Our phylogenetic analysis revealed that group G contains additionally an endosymbiont from a freshwater mussel, Unio crassus recently obtained by Mioduchowska et al. [43].
It is worth noting that, in common with group A which includes “Candidatus Cardinium” sensu stricto and closely related organisms, and group B with “Candidatus Paenicardinium”, other molecular groups appear to comprise organisms of different bacterial genera as well. This can be inferred at least from the 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities between representatives of these groups [8,14,20,22], which are below the commonly accepted genus borderline (94.5% or 95.0%) [16,19]. Only group F (strain Cardinium of Pratylenchus penetrans) shares higher sequence identities to a few groups (according to our Blast search) and requires further elucidation of its taxonomic status using genome relatedness indices, such as the average amino acid identities (AAI), percentage of conserved proteins (POCP), the average nucleotide identities (ANI) and genome alignment fractions (AF) [18,19].
It has been shown that symbionts from the Cardinium clade are maintained within host populations via maternal transmission to the progeny through the egg cytoplasm. Because representatives of various lineages of this group are shared with different and distantly related host species, it was surmised that these endosymbionts may also exchange hosts via horizontal transmission [4,44,45]. It seems that eukaryotic host cells may not require the survival of this bacterium, as it has been shown for Wolbachia. The ability of intracellular bacterial endosymbionts to survive outside host cells may increase the probability of successful horizontal transfer and the exploitation of new ecological niches [46].
Phylogenetic relationships and evolution trends within the Cardinium clade have been studied and discussed by many authors [4,6,8,11,14,22,25,27,39,41,47,48,49]. Members of the Cardinium clade represent the sister group to the amoeba symbiont Amoebophilus asiaticus [8,50]. It has been shown that Cardinium symbionts share several genome characteristics with the amoeba symbiont Amoebophilus. It is thus likely that the common ancestor of the Cardinium clade (pro-Cardinium) and Amoebophilus lived as a symbiont of an amoeba or a protist [13] inhabiting a water environment. Further evolution of endosymbionts occurred in several radial directions with their transition to freshwater ostracods, copepods and mussels, soil-inhabiting oribatid mites, biting midges, whose larvae develop in a variety of semi-aquatic or aquatic habitats, and to soil plant-parasitic nematodes (Figure 4). The most flourishing group of the Cardinium clade is group A, which possibly originated from soil mites, where these bacteria were widely circulated. From spider herbivorous mites, which were found to be particularly rich in Cardinium infections [36,48], the bacteria have transformed to phloem-feeding insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts, and through them to plants. It has been demonstrated that an interspecific horizontal transmission of symbionts of the Cardinium clade can occur through the plant tissue pierced by the insect host, which releases bacteria from its salivary glands during feeding [45,51]. Further evolutionary transition of symbionts occurred from phloem-feeding insects (whiteflies, leafhoppers, scale insects) to endoparasitic wasps and from other insects and mites to its natural enemies, spiders and opilionids. Low sequence divergence between predators and preys may indicate recent occurrences of these transitions. The presence of several lineages of Cardinium and relatives from opilionids and spiders [47] indicated independent horizontal movements of this bacterium to these arthropods during evolution.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Nematode Populations

Ninety-three species of plant-parasitic nematodes belonging to several major families of the order Tylenchida and Bursaphelenchus mucronatus from the order Aphelenchida collected from various locations (Table 1 and Table S1) were used for the Cardinium screening study. A total of 142 nematode samples belonging to 93 species from 12 families were analyzed. Nematode species were identified using morphology and molecular datasets. Cysts of H. humuli and H. ripae collected from common nettle (Urtica dioica L.) growing on the bank of the Jauza River, Moscow [52], were used for genomic sequencing of Cardinium.

4.2. DNA Extraction and Whole-Genome Amplification

For the Cardinium screening study, DNA samples each obtained from single or several specimens of plant-parasitic nematodes were used. Nematodes were washed in distilled water to exclude possible environmental bacterial contamination and then placed into a drop of water. Nematodes were cut under a binocular microscope using an eye scalpel. Fifteen μL of cut nematode suspension in water were transferred into a 0.2 mL Eppendorf tube; 3 μL proteinase K (600 μg ml−1) (Promega, Madison, WI, USA) and 2 μL 10 × PCR buffer (Taq PCR Core Kit, Qiagen, Germantown, MD, USA) were added to each tube. The tubes were incubated at 65 °C (1 h) and 95 °C (15 min) consecutively. After incubation, the tubes were centrifuged and stored at −20 °C until used.
Three DNA samples from cyst nematodes were submitted for the Cardinium genomic sequencing study. DNA for the first sample was obtained from a mixture of several dozen cysts of H. humuli and H. ripae (CD3144) using a MasterPure Complete DNA & RNA purification kit (Lucigen, Middleton, WI, USA) following the manufacturer’s instructions. DNA for the second sample and the third sample was obtained from individual cysts of H. humuli (CD3144_Hum) and H. ripae (CD3144_Rip), respectively, using the whole genome amplification (WGA) approach. WGA of DNA extracted from individual cysts with proteinase K protocol was performed using an Illustra GenomiPhi V2 DNA amplification kit (Cytiva, Marlborough, MA, USA) following the manufacturer’s instructions. The products were purified using a QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen, Germantown, MD, USA) and submitted for genome sequencing.

4.3. PCR and Sequencing of 16S rRNA for Cardinium

PCR was performed on DNA nematode samples using Cardinium-specific 16S rRNA gene primers: Car_281_F (5′-GGT AGG GGT TCT TAG TGG AAG-3′) and Car_269_R (5′-TGC TCC CCA CGC TTT CGT G-3′) designed by Brown et al. [25] and Cardinium-specific gyrB gene primers: gyrb_859F-mod (5′-ATG CAY GTA ACG GGD TTT AAA AG-3′) modified in this study from Stouthamer et al. [53] and gyrb_1498R (5′-CAT AAT YAC AAT TTT ATG GTA MCG-3′) designed in this study. The specificities of Cardinium-specific primers were evaluated in silico using corresponding gene sequence alignments for Cardinium and related genera and using a Blast search in the Genbank database. Amplification of partial 16S rRNA and gyrB genes was performed in a 0.2 mL Eppendorf tube containing 2.5 μL 10 × PCR buffer, 5 μL Q solution, 0.5 μL dNTPs mixture (10 mM each) (Taq PCR Core Kit, Qiagen), 0.15 μL of each primer (1.0 μg μL−1), 0.1 μL Taq Polymerase, 2 μL DNA nematode extract and double distilled water to a final volume of 25 μL.
All PCRs were run with the following thermal profile: an initial denaturation at 94 °C for 4 min, followed by 40 cycles of 1 min at 94 °C, 1 min at 45 °C, and 1 min 30 s at 72 °C, with a final extension at 72 °C for 10 min. The PCR product was run on 1% agarose gel in a TAE buffer. Amplicons were visualized with a GelGreen nucleic acid stain (Biotium, Fremont, CA, USA) under a UV light, purified by using a QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen, Germantown, MD, USA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions and directly sequenced by Genewiz (San Francisco, CA, USA). New sequences were deposited in the GenBank database; accession numbers are given in Table 1 as well as the phylogenetic trees.
The new sequences of Cardinium of H. humuli for fusA, gloEL, sufB and infB genes were obtained from genome sequencing datasets.

4.4. Phylogenetic Analysis

The new sequences of Cardinium of H. humuli for 16S rRNA, gyrB, fusA, gloEL, sufB and infB genes were aligned using ClustalX 1.83 [54] with their corresponding published gene sequences of selected Cardinium [20,22,25,35,55]. Outgroup taxa were chosen based on previously published data [25]. The best-fit models of DNA and protein evolution were obtained using the jModelTest 2.1.10 [56] and ProtTest3.4.2 [57], respectively, with the Akaike Information criterion. Nucleotide and amino acid sequence alignments were analyzed with Bayesian inference (BI) using MrBayes 3.1.2 and MrBayes 3.2.7, respectively [58]. BI analysis was initiated with a random starting tree and was run with four chains for 1.0 × 106 generations for nucleotide sequence alignment and for 1.0 × 104 generation for amino acid sequence alignment. Two runs were performed for each analysis. The Markov chains were sampled at intervals of 100 generations. After discarding 10% and 25% burn-in samples for nucleotide and amino acid alignments, respectively, 50% majority rule consensus trees were generated. Posterior probabilities (PP) in percentages are given on the appropriate clades. Nucleotide sequence alignments were analyzed with maximum likelihood (ML) using PAUP* 4b10 [59]. Bootstrap support (BS) values for ML trees were calculated by a heuristic search from 100 replicates. The 16S rRNA gene sequence alignment was used to construct phylogenetic network estimation using statistical parsimony (SP) as implemented in POPART software (http://popart.otago.ac.nz) [60]. Trees and the network were drawn with Adobe Illustrator v.10. Pairwise divergence between taxa was calculated as the absolute distance value and the percentage of the mean distance, with adjustment for missing data, using PAUP.

4.5. Genome Sequencing and Analysis

DNA library construction and sequencing were conducted by Novogene Co., Ltd., (Sacramento, CA, USA) using a NEBNext Ultra II DNA library prep kit from Illumina (New England Biolabs, Inc., Ipswich, MA, USA) following the manufacturer’s recommendations. Pooled DNA libraries were sequenced on an Illumina NovaSeq 6000 instrument to obtain 150-bp paired-end reads for three samples. The quality of raw reads was evaluated using FastQC [61]. A total of sequence datasets comprising ~139, 143, and 141 million reads was generated for the first sample (H. humuli + H. ripae cysts; CD3144), the second sample (WGA of H. humuli; CD3144_Hum), and the third sample (WGA of H. ripae; CD3144_Rip), respectively (Table 2). Quality filtering and adapters removing were processed with the Trimmomatic V0.39 [62]. Clean reads from the CD3144_Hum sample were mapped with a Bowtie2 v2.4.5 [63] to the Cardinium hertigii cHgTN10 genome (CP029619.1) as the closest one. The mapped reads were then collected and assembled using SPAdes v3.15.4 [64]. Resulting contigs were extended using Mapsembler v2.2.4 [65] to resolve dead ends in the initial assembly. Reads were then mapped back to extended contigs, collected, and reassembled. Assembly graphs were then manually checked with Bandage v0.8.1 [66] to remove suspicious sequences. Finally, reads were mapped onto final scaffolds of the Cardinium cHhum assembly to assess variations in key genes for systematic purposes. Annotation was performed with NCBI PGAP v6.3 [67]. To evaluate the presence of Cardinium in samples CD3144_Rip and CD3144, clean reads from the corresponding libraries were mapped onto the final assembly of Cardinium cHhum. Mapped reads were collected, counted, and assembled.
Orthogroups between the Cardinium cHhum, Cardinium cHgTN10 and Cardinium cPpe genomes were found using the OrthoFinder 2.5.1 [68]. The genome relatedness indices, viz., the average nucleotide identity (ANI) and digital DNA-DNA hybridization (dDDH) values, were calculated using JSpecies 1.2.1 [34] and GGDC 3.0 [69] tools, respectively. The phylogenomic tree was inferred by the JolyTree 2.1.211019ac [70].

Supplementary Materials

The supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijms24032905/s1.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.A.S. and L.I.E.; methodology, S.A.S., L.I.E. and S.V.T.; software, S.V.T., B.D.E. and S.A.S.; validation, S.V.T., B.D.E., P.C. and S.A.S.; formal analysis, S.V.T., B.D.E. and S.A.S.; investigation, S.V.T., B.D.E., P.C. and S.A.S.; resources, S.V.T., P.C., L.I.E. and S.A.S.; data curation, S.V.T., P.C., L.I.E. and S.A.S.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.S. and L.I.E.; writing—review and editing, S.V.T., P.C. and B.D.E.; visualization, S.V.T., B.D.E. and S.A.S.; supervision, S.A.S. and L.I.E.; project administration, S.A.S. and L.I.E.; funding acquisition, S.A.S. and L.I.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was partly supported by USDA APHIS Farm Bill grants: AP18PPQS& T00C201/18-0430-000-FR and AP20PPQS&T00C078/20-0256-000-FR and by a grant from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Grant agreement № 075-15-2021-1051). B.D.E acknowledges support from a Russian Science Foundation grant (19-74-20147).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Sequencing data are available from the NCBI database, accessions # JAOPFT000000000.1, OP391674-OP391687, OP381863-OP381875, OP595164, OP595165. All other relevant data are included within the manuscript and Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank V. N. Chizhov, I. Cid del Prado Vera, Z. Handoo, O. Kulinich, J. E Palomares-Rius, R. Inserra and other colleagues for nematode materials and acknowledge J. Burbridge for technical assistance and J. J. Chitambar, S. Albu and two anonymous referees for their critical review of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Ijms 24 02905 g001 550
Figure 1. Phylogenetic relationships among representatives of Cardinium clade found in plant-parasitic nematodes. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree as inferred from the 16S rRNA gene sequence alignment (alignment length-443 bp) (A) and the gyrB gene sequence alignment (alignment length-662 bp) (B) under the GTR + I + G model. Posterior probabilities (BI) more than 50% are shown at branching points.
Figure 1. Phylogenetic relationships among representatives of Cardinium clade found in plant-parasitic nematodes. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree as inferred from the 16S rRNA gene sequence alignment (alignment length-443 bp) (A) and the gyrB gene sequence alignment (alignment length-662 bp) (B) under the GTR + I + G model. Posterior probabilities (BI) more than 50% are shown at branching points.
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Figure 2. Phylogenetic relationships among representatives of Cardinium clade. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree as inferred from 16S rRNA sequence alignment (alignment length-1464 bp) under the GTR + I + G model. Posterior probabilities (BI) and bootstrap values (ML) more than 50% are shown at branching points. *—Type strain of “Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii”.
Figure 2. Phylogenetic relationships among representatives of Cardinium clade. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree as inferred from 16S rRNA sequence alignment (alignment length-1464 bp) under the GTR + I + G model. Posterior probabilities (BI) and bootstrap values (ML) more than 50% are shown at branching points. *—Type strain of “Candidatus Paenicardinium endonii”.
Ijms 24 02905 g002
Ijms 24 02905 g003 550
Figure 3. Phylogenetic relationships among representatives of Cardinium clade. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus trees as inferred from gyrB nucleotide (alignment length-1414 bp) (A) and amino acid (alignment length-470 aa) (B) sequence alignments. Posterior probabilities (BI) and bootstrap values (ML) more than 50% are shown at branching points.
Figure 3. Phylogenetic relationships among representatives of Cardinium clade. Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus trees as inferred from gyrB nucleotide (alignment length-1414 bp) (A) and amino acid (alignment length-470 aa) (B) sequence alignments. Posterior probabilities (BI) and bootstrap values (ML) more than 50% are shown at branching points.
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Figure 4. Schema of putative evolutionary relationships and horizontal transmissions of bacterial endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade within invertebrates.
Figure 4. Schema of putative evolutionary relationships and horizontal transmissions of bacterial endosymbionts of the Cardinium clade within invertebrates.
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Table
Table 1. List of cyst-nematode species with Cardinium found during this study.
Table 1. List of cyst-nematode species with Cardinium found during this study.
SpeciesSample CodeLocationGenBank Accession Number
16S rRNA GenegyrB Gene
Cactodera rosaeCD329MexicoOP391685OP381874
Cactodera sp.CD3612MexicoOP391686OP381864
Globodera rostochiensisCD2568bBolivia, Cochabamba, SaavedraOP391684OP381875
Heterodera avenaeCD1456Tunisia, SilianaOP391679-
H. humuliCD3144b-2Russia, MoscowOP391674OP381867
H. goettingianaCD3123aFrance, AntibesOP391681OP381868
H. ripaeCD3144b-4Russia, MoscowOP391676OP381866
H. salixophilaCD3258bUkraine, KhersonOP391675OP381869
H. latiponsCD2047Turkey, Kilis, MerkezOP391678OP381871
H. latiponsCD1992Turkey, ElbistanOP391680OP381870
H. mediterraneaCD3246Spain, Saler, ValenciaOP391683OP381873
H. mediterraneaCD3118aSpain, Vejer, CádizOP391682OP381872
H. sturhaniCD2360aChinaOP391677OP381865
Punctodera chalcoensisCD2813MexicoOP391687OP381863
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MDPI and ACS Style

Tarlachkov, S.V.; Efeykin, B.D.; Castillo, P.; Evtushenko, L.I.; Subbotin, S.A. Distribution of Bacterial Endosymbionts of the Cardinium Clade in Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 2905. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032905

AMA Style

Tarlachkov SV, Efeykin BD, Castillo P, Evtushenko LI, Subbotin SA. Distribution of Bacterial Endosymbionts of the Cardinium Clade in Plant-Parasitic Nematodes. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(3):2905. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032905

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tarlachkov, Sergey V., Boris D. Efeykin, Pablo Castillo, Lyudmila I. Evtushenko, and Sergei A. Subbotin. 2023. "Distribution of Bacterial Endosymbionts of the Cardinium Clade in Plant-Parasitic Nematodes" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 3: 2905. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032905

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