1. Introduction
Pouteria macrophylla (Lam.) Eyma belongs to the Sapotaceae family and is found in the Brazilian Amazon region and other South American countries, including Bolivia, Peru, French Guiana, Suriname, Colombia, and Venezuela. Its fruits possess common names such as cutite, jarana, abiurana-cutite, taturubá, and abiu-cutite, among others. The fruit pulp can be consumed fresh or in the manufacture of ice cream and sweets, while the fruit peel is popularly used to treat dysentery [
1]. Chemically, the cutite fruit is characterized by the presence of phenolic compounds, such as gallic acid (GA), p-coumaric, vanillic, ferulic, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic, synaptic, caffeic, and flavonoids such as quercetin and catechins [
2,
3,
4]. Furthermore, the presence of GA as the main compound and biomarker, followed by other phenolic compounds, promotes its antioxidant action [
2,
5]. Nonetheless, more than the antioxidant activity, these compounds present a cosmetic interest due to their anti-melanogenic action by inhibiting tyrosinase and suppressing other genes related to pigment formation [
6]. Indeed, the tyrosinase inhibition potential of GA has already been described [
7,
8].
Hyperchromias are anomalies that occur in the skin due to the accumulation of melanin or an increase in melanocytes number [
9,
10]. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the main factor related to the appearance of hyperchromias, triggering several reactions that increase the transfer of melanin to keratinocytes [
11]. The main form of hyperchromia treatment is the use of depigmenting actives. These substances can act in several ways, mainly through the suppression or inhibition of tyrosinase synthesis or genes related to melanogenesis, such as the transcription factor associated with microphthalmia (MITF) [
12,
13]. Tyrosine, an essential amino acid, is the initial element of melanin biosynthesis through the action of tyrosinase, giving rise to eumelanin and pheomelanin. In the presence of molecular oxygen, tyrosinase oxidizes and transforms tyrosine into DOPA and this into dopaquinone [
8,
14].
The use of depigmenting actives with tyrosinase inhibitory mechanisms is increasingly common in the cosmetic industry. However, prolonged use can trigger several adverse effects. These compounds generally have high cytotoxicity and can generate mutations in melanocytes. Hydroquinone, considered the gold standard for treating hyperchromias, can cause contact dermatitis, skin irritation, and exogenous ochronosis [
15]. In addition, the topical application effectiveness of such compounds can be affected by a low capacity to penetrate the skin and low stability in the formulations. Such limitations encourage the use of novel naturally occurring depigmenting actives [
8,
16]. The antimelanogenic action of GA sets a precedent for the research of the cutite fruit extract as an active pharmaceutical ingredient. Nevertheless, more importantly, the formulation must maintain extracts’ composition stably and have an appealing sensorial feeling, which is indispensable in cosmetics.
In this sense, microemulsion appears as an ideal formulation. Microemulsions are liquid, transparent, thermodynamically stable nanosystems of water and oil stabilized by a surfactant and co-surfactants [
17]. They have been demonstrated to be a suitable carrier for plant extracts, preserving the stability and enhancing cutaneous delivery [
18].
Hence, the present work initially aimed to verify for the first time the cutite extract depigmenting action by cell assays using melanocytes. Next, a stable cutite extract-loaded microemulsion was obtained and evaluated by in vitro release and permeation assays. Finally, the proposed formulation was challenged by a 3D culture model of pigmented skin envisaging a safe and effective cutaneous administration for cosmetic purposes.
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Chemical and Reagents
GA (>99%), HEPES (2-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-piperazin-1-yl]-ethanesulfonic acid), Span® 80, Cremophor® ELP, mineral oil, Polawax®, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), L-tyrosine, and tyrosinase were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Steinheim, Germany). Ethyl oleate, 98% formic acid for LC-MS, and ammonium chloride were purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Methanol and ethanol of chromatographic grade were acquired from J.T. Baker (Phillipsburg, NJ, USA). The constituents of the emulsions, methylparaben, propylparaben, and propylene glycol, were obtained from Dinâmica Química Contemporânea Ltd.a. (São Paulo, Brazil). Dow Corning (DC) 556 and 2501 were purchased from Dow Corning Corporation (Midland, TX, USA). EDTA-disodium was obteined from Vetec Química Fina Ltd.a. (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). Pre-cleaned filters, 25 mm in diameter and with 0.45 μm hydrophilic pores, were purchased from Analitica (São Paulo, Brazil). All analyzes were performed with ultrapure water (Millipore, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France). MTT (3-(4,5dimethyl-2-thiazolyl-2) -2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide) and isoproterenol were purchased from Sigma Chemicals (St. Louis, MO, USA). Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium (DMEM), fetal bovine serum (FBS), and Trizol were purchased from Gibco Life Technologies (Indianapolis, IN, USA). Penicillin/streptomycin was obtained by Invitrogen (Grand Island, NY, USA). RAFT: KGM-Gold Bullet Kit medium and 254 medium were purchased from Lonza (Walkersville, MD, USA). Type-I collagen gel (354236-I) was obtained from Corning (Tewsbury, MA, USA). Ampicillin sodium salt and streptomycin were acquired from Gibco Life Technologies (Grand Carlsbad, CA, USA). B16F10 immortalized murine melanoma cells were donated by the Molecular Pharmacology Laboratory (FarMol) of the University of Brasilia (Brasília, Brazil) but were originally obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). The reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) test method kit was kindly donated by EpiSkin™ (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). Scotch book tapes no. 845 (3 M, St. Paul, MN, USA) were used to perform the tape stripping technique. Skin from porcine ears was obtained from Sabugy Agroindustria e Comercio de Alimentos (Brasilia, Brazil). For the 3D pigmented skin model, human melanocytes, keratinocytes, and fibroblasts were isolated from donated foreskin samples from the University of São Paulo Hospital (São Paulo, Brazil). The cells were isolated, as previously described by Pennacchi et al. (PENNACHI et al., 2015), under the approval of the local Ethics Committee (HU CEP Case # 943/09, SISNEP CAAE 0062.0.198.000-9). Commercial formulation (Kojic Acid Serum, Botik, SP, Brazil) used as a control in a 3D pigmented skin model was purchased in a regular store in Brasilia.
3.2. Cutite Fruit (Pouteria Macrophylla) Lam. Emya Extract Obtention and Characterization
The fruits were collected, and the aerial parts and fruits were identified by comparison with authentic vouchers of
Pouteria macrophylla (Lam.) Eyma existing in the Herbarium of the Museum Emílio Goeldi (MG239766), city of Belém, state of Pará, Brazil. Fruits were freeze-dried for 48 h and then extracted by percolation with ethanol assisted by ultrasound for 10 min, as previously described [
2]. After percolation, the solvent was evaporated using a rotating evaporator. The process yield was 42.98%, and the dried extract was named EXT. GA content in the EXT was confirmed by LC-MS, according to the method described in
Section 2.2.
3.3. LC-MS Analyses
The determination of GA, the biomarker of the cutite fruit ethanolic extract, was performed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) using an equipment model 2020 from Shimadzu (Kyoto, Japan), connected to a Genius NM32LA nitrogen gas generator model (Peak Scientific, United Kingdom) and mechanical vacuum pump (Edwards, Burgess Hill, England), with dual-spray ionization source, acting on negative ionization mode by electrospray (ESI-), coupled with liquid chromatography system.
A C18 reverse-phase column (4.6 mm × 150 mm; 5 μm Shim-pack, Shimadzu) was used as the stationary phase. The mobile phase was composed of 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and 0.1% formic acid in methanol (B) applied by gradient with a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min according to the schedule: A/B = 90/10 (0.01 min–1.5 min), 80/20 (1.6 min–3.5 min), 70/30 (3.6 min–5.5 min), 60/40 (5.6 min–7.5 min), 10/90 (7.6 min–10 min), and 90/10 (10.1 min–15 min). The oven temperature was maintained at 35 °C, and the injection volume of each sample was 2 μL. The limits of detection and quantification were 0.1 μg/mL and 0.3 μg/mL.
3.4. Melanocyte Cell Culture and In Vitro Pigmentation Studies
The analysis of the cellular toxicity, depigmentation effect, and suppression of genes involved in melanogenesis by GA and EXT was performed in immortalized melanocyte cultures from murine melanoma (B16F10). The cells were cultured using DMEM supplemented with 10% (v/v) FBS and 1% (v/v) of penicillin/streptomycin solution (1000 U/mL).
3.4.1. Cell Viability Assay
EXT and standard analytical concentrations were tested to select the highest non-toxic concentrations for further experiments. B16F10 cells were seeded in 96-well plates at a density of 1 × 104 cells per well and incubated for 48 h. Then, cells were treated with GA and EXT. The concentrations of the EXT tested were 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 1, and 10 μg/mL (m/v) using DMSO as a solvent and GA was used at 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 μM. Cells incubated with vehicle only were considered as untreated controls. After 48 h, cells were washed with PBS, fresh DMEM was supplemented with FBS, and 5 mg/mL MTT was added, followed by plate incubation for 4 h in the dark. Once the MTT solution was carefully removed, DMSO was added to dissolve the formed formazan crystals. A spectrophotometer of microplates (BioTek, PowerWave, VT, USA) was used to read the microplate at 570 nm. After deducting the optical density obtained from the blank (DMSO), the analysis was carried out. Data were normalized to the untreated controls, considered 100% viability, representing the mean ± SD of three independent experiments.
3.4.2. Determination of Intracellular and Extracellular Melanin Content
Melanin production was assessed regarding intracellular melanin production and secretion in the cell culture supernatant, as previously described by our group [
17]. Briefly, 3 × 10
5 cells were plated in 6-well plates and incubated with 0.1 mM 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) to induce melanogenesis and treated with GA or EXT, for 48 h. Extracellular melanin content was evaluated by collecting 100 μL of cell culture supernatant from each well. The reading was performed in a microplate reader (Bio-Tec PowerWave, HT, USA) at 405 nm, and the analysis was performed after deducting the optical density obtained in the blank (DMEM). The intracellular melanin content was evaluated from cells harvested, lysed, and mixed with 200 μL of NaOH (1 M) for 16 h at room temperature (20 –25 °C). The absorbance was measured at 405 nm, and the analysis was performed after deducting the optical density obtained in the blank (NaOH). The melanin content of IBMX-stimulated cells was considered 100% and used to normalize melanin production in the experimental groups. Untreated samples received vehicle only and were used as the negative control.
3.4.3. Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR)
The isolation of total RNA from the cells treated with IBMX, or IBMX and GA or EXT for 48 h was performed using the reagent trizol and following the manufacturer’s instructions to analyze MITF and TYR mRNA expression. First, the RNA concentration was determined by reading the absorbance at 260/280 nm on Nanodrop equipment (Thermo Fisher Sientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Next, the RNA samples were reverse-transcribed using the High-Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit, following the manufacturer’s instructions. Finally, the mRNA levels were determined by qPCR using the SYBRTM Green Master Mix (Thermo Fisher Sientific, Waltham, MA, USA) and the following primers: GAPDH F - ACATCGCTCAGACACCATG, GAPDH R - TGTAGTTGAGGTCAATGAAGGG; MITF F: AGGACCTTGAAAACCGACAG, MITF R - GTGGATGGGATAAGGGAAAG; TYR F: AGCCTGTGCCTCCTCTAA, TYR R: AGGAACCTCTGCCTGAAA. Amplifications were performed by StepOne Plus equipment (Thermo Fisher Sientific, Waltham, MA, USA), and the data were analyzed by StepOne Software v2.3 [
30] using the 2-ddct method.
3.5. Preparation and Characterization of Formulations
3.5.1. Microemulsion
The microemulsion was obtained from a pseudoternary phase diagram as previously described [
18]. Briefly, HEPES buffer, pH 4.5, was used as the aqueous phase and the surfactants Cremophor
® and Span
® 80 were mixed in a ratio of 4:1 (
w/
w) under vigorous stirring. The surfactants were then dissolved in oil phase (ethyl oleate) in progressive ratios of 9:1, 8:1, 7:1, 6:1, 5:1, 4:1, 3:1, 2:1, and 1:1 (
w/
w) at room temperature. The systems obtained from each mixture rested for 5 min and were then classified according to their physical aspect as “phase separation”, “milky”, “cloudy”, “flocculation”, or “possible microemulsion”.
Among the region that forms microemulsion, the composition with the highest viscosity, a higher proportion of pH 4.5 HEPES buffer, and a lower concentration of surfactants was selected to continue the study. Subsequently, 37.3 mg/g of EXT, corresponding to 0.05% of GA content, was added to the chosen microemulsion and mixed with a glass stick for incorporation. The EXT was added at temperatures lower than 40 °C.
The microemulsion was characterized by means of droplet size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential using a “Zetasizer Nano ZS” equipment (Malvern, Worcestershire, UK) and pH using DM-22 equipment (Digimed, São Paulo, Brazil). Morphological analysis was also performed using diluted samples (1:1000) analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM; JEM 1011 Transmission Electron Microscope, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan–100 kV). The images were captured with a GATAN BioScan camera (model 820, Pleasanton, CA, USA) using the Digital Micrograph 3.6.5 software (Pleasanton, CA, USA).
3.5.2. Emulsion-Gel
An emulsion gel was obtained to serve as a conventional formulation control by preparation of two heated phases separately. Phase 1 comprised 0.4% Aristoflex® AVC, 0.1% EDTA-disodium, 5% propylene glycol humectant, and 94.5% pH 4.5 HEPES buffer. Phase 2 was composed by 14% Polawax®, 1% liquid vaseline, 2% DC 556, 1% DC 2501, 0.1% BHT and 0.5% methylparaben and propylparaben. After mild heating (50 °C), phase 1 was poured into phase 2 under vigorous stirring to form the emulsion. After reaching room temperature, the emulsion was homogenized and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 min to assure there would be no phase separation. The pH of the formulation was 4.0 ± 0.3. For comparison purposes, the same amount of EXT was incorporated by geometric dilution technique into the conventional emulsion (37.3 mg/g).
3.6. Short-Term Stability Study
Stability studies were carried out for 30 days with formulation samples stored in hermetically sealed Eppendorf at room temperature (20–25 °C) (n = 3 for each formulation). At 0, 1, 7, 15, and 30 days, samples were analyzed for droplet size, PDI, and zeta potential for the microemulsion only, and pH and GA content for both the microemulsion and the conventional emulsion formulations.
3.7. Skin Irritation Test
The irritative potential of the microemulsion and the conventional emulsion was evaluated using reconstructed human skin (RHE, SkinEthic RHETM) provided by EpiSkin™ according to OECD guidelines described in test n. 439 [
29]. For the skin irritation tests, formulations were prepared and stored at room temperature for one week prior to the experiments. Briefly, 16 ± 0.5 μL of microemulsion or conventional emulsion were added over the RHE. The same amount of sodium dodecyl sulfate 5% (
w/
v) was used as a positive control, and saline solution at 0.9% (
w/
v) as a negative control. The samples remained in contact with the RHE for 42 min in an oven at 5% CO2, 37 °C, and 95% humidity. After this period, each well was washed with 25 jets of 1 mL of saline solution, and the plate was stored for 42 h under the same conditions. Finally, the tissues were transferred to another 24-well plate containing 300 μL/well MTT bromide solution at 1 mg/mL (1:5 dilution at the time of use) and incubated for 2 h protected from light in an oven at 5% CO
2, 37 °C, and 95% humidity. Subsequently, 750 μL of isopropanol was added under and 750 μL over the tissues for extraction. Then, the reading was performed by colorimetry in a microplate reader (Bio-Tec PowerWave, Winooski, VT, USA) at 570 nm. The study was carried out in triplicate, and the result was based on the optical density obtained from each sample minus the optical density of the blank (isopropanol).
3.8. In Vitro Release Study
The release of GA from the EXT incorporated into the formulations was determined in vitro throughout 12 h using modified Franz-type diffusion cells (diffusion area = 1.3 cm
2) mounted with hydrophilic cellulose membranes (12,000–14,000 MWCO) separating donor and receptor compartments [
31]. The donor compartment was filled with 500 mg of the microemulsion, conventional emulsion, or GA aqueous solution (control). The system temperature was kept at 30 °C by a water bath. All experiments followed “sink conditions.” Samples from the receptor were collected hourly.
3.9. In Vitro Skin Permeation
In vitro cutaneous permeation studies were performed trough porcine skin using modified Franz-type diffusion cells (diffusion area = 1.3 cm
2) for 6 h. The donor compartments were filled with 500 mg of microemulsion or conventional emulsion. The system temperature was kept at 30 °C by a water bath. Afterward, the buffer samples were collected and the tyrosinase bioassay method described in
Section 3.9.1 was followed for the analysis of the tyrosinase inhibition of the extract. Next, tape striping was performed to remove the stratum corneum. Finally, the remaining skin was cut into small pieces and placed in a glass tube with water and ethanol (1:1 v/v) under stirring at 500 rpm for 16 h for actives extraction. Ultimately, the samples were filtered (0.22 μm), and the tyrosinase bioassay was performed.
3.9.1. Tyrosinase Bioassay
The tyrosinase inhibition was determined by modifying the dopachrome method [
32] using an L-tyrosine substrate. In a cuvette, 400 μL of each sample obtained from the in vitro skin permeation assay was placed and added to a tyrosinase solution at 0.1 mg/mL in 800 μL phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 6.8). Then, 400 μL of the substrate (L-tyrosine at 0.5 mg/mL) was added and incubated for 30 min at 37 °C. After 30 min of reaction, the absorbance was read at 492 nm, and the inhibition percentage was calculated in relation to the control. Phosphate buffer and kojic acid were tested under the same protocol to be used as negative and positive controls, respectively.
3.10. Formulation Activity on 3D Pigmented Reconstructed Human Skin Model
The 3D pigmented reconstructed human skin model was first obtained by our group as previously reported. Basically, normal human melanocytes, keratinocytes, and fibroblasts were cultivated in specific growth medium for each cell type and maintained in an incubator at 37 °C containing 7.5% CO2 for keratinocytes and 5% CO2 for melanocytes and fibroblasts. Then, pigmented reconstructed human skin was prepared in two steps. First, the dermal compartment was prepared using type-I collagen gel (354236-I, Corning, Tewsbury, MA, USA) and fibroblasts (1.5 × 105/equivalent). After polymerization, 2.5 × 105 human keratinocytes and 1.7 × 105 human melanocytes were seeded in RAFT: KGM-Gold Bullet Kit medium (1:1) on top of each lattice, and the skins were kept submerged in the culture medium for 24 h. The construct was transferred and maintained at an air-liquid interface for 10 days in a 5% CO2 incubator to allow complete keratinocytes stratification and differentiation. The medium was supplemented with tyrosine (0.25 mM) and NH4Cl (5 mM) and was replaced every 2 days to induce pigmentation. The skins were treated with 10 μL of the commercial product (kojic acid serum) or 10 μL of the microemulsion containing the EXT for 12 h. After this, skins were fixed in 10% buffered formalin at 4 °C for 12 h, followed by dehydration in solutions containing increasing concentrations of alcohol and xylene for paraffin inclusion. Paraffin sections (5 μm) were stained with Fontana-Masson. All images were obtained by optical microscopy (Nikon Eclipse- 20× and 40×). The experiment was performed in three independent replicates.
3.11. Statistical Analyses
The pseudoternary phase diagram was constructed with Origin 8 (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA). Statistical analyses were conducted using Prism 6 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA), in which the level of significance was set at p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001, and p < 0.0001. Differences between datasets were verified by normality tests via one-way analysis of variance, followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison test.