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Review

Pharmacologically Active Phytomolecules Isolated from Traditional Antidiabetic Plants and Their Therapeutic Role for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus

by
Prawej Ansari
1,2,*,
Samia Akther
1,
J. M. A. Hannan
1,
Veronique Seidel
3,
Nusrat Jahan Nujat
1 and
Yasser H. A. Abdel-Wahab
2
1
Department of Pharmacy, Independent University, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh
2
School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, UK
3
Natural Products Research Laboratory, Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2022, 27(13), 4278; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134278
Submission received: 25 May 2022 / Revised: 29 June 2022 / Accepted: 1 July 2022 / Published: 3 July 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemistry and Biological Properties of Medicinal Plants)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic complication that affects people of all ages. The increased prevalence of diabetes worldwide has led to the development of several synthetic drugs to tackle this health problem. Such drugs, although effective as antihyperglycemic agents, are accompanied by various side effects, costly, and inaccessible to the majority of people living in underdeveloped countries. Medicinal plants have been used traditionally throughout the ages to treat various ailments due to their availability and safe nature. Medicinal plants are a rich source of phytochemicals that possess several health benefits. As diabetes continues to become prevalent, health care practitioners are considering plant-based medicines as a potential source of antidiabetic drugs due to their high potency and fewer side effects. To better understand the mechanism of action of medicinal plants, their active phytoconstituents are being isolated and investigated thoroughly. In this review article, we have focused on pharmacologically active phytomolecules isolated from medicinal plants presenting antidiabetic activity and the role they play in the treatment and management of diabetes. These natural compounds may represent as good candidates for a novel therapeutic approach and/or effective and alternative therapies for diabetes.

1. Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most common endocrine metabolic disorders characterized by chronic hyperglycemia caused by varying degrees of insulin resistance, deficiency in insulin secretion, or both [1]. Nearly 10.5% of the worldwide population is affected by diabetes, with its prevalence increasing at an alarming rate. According to data collected from the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), about 783.2 million people are estimated to be diagnosed with diabetes by 2045 [2]. Diabetes mellitus can be classified into two major categories: Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, where Type 2 diabetes accounts for about 90% of all cases. Type 1 diabetes, previously known as insulin-dependent diabetes, is an autoimmune disorder that occurs due to the destruction of the pancreatic beta cells leading to significantly reduced secretion of insulin [3]. It is a non-hereditary genetic condition that mainly affects the juvenile under thirty years of age. Type 2 diabetes, also known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes, is the most common form of diabetes, with its prevalence rapidly rising worldwide [4]. It is a hereditary condition caused as a result of insulin resistance, insufficient insulin secretion, or a combination of both, largely affecting an older population than Type 1 diabetes [5]. Both forms of diabetes alter carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. The effect of insulin resistance leads to high blood sugar levels by hindering the uptake and efficient use of glucose by most cells of the body [6]. The progression of the disease is accompanied by tissue or vascular damage resulting in severe complications, including retinopathy, diabetic neuropathy, nephropathy, cardiovascular, pulmonary, cerebral, and peripheral vascular diseases, ulcers, and thyroid gland disorders, leading to serious morbidity and mortality [1,7,8,9]. Available therapies currently in use for the treatment and management of diabetes include insulin and several oral hypoglycemic agents such as metformin, sulfonylureas, α-glucosidase inhibitors, meglitinide analogues, thiazolidinediones, DPP-IV inhibitors, SGLT-2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 mimetics. However, these drugs, intended to boost insulin sensitivity and increase insulin secretion together with the reduction in circulatory plasma glucose levels by increasing glucose excretion or uptake in adipose tissue, are usually associated with many side effects. These include, among others, weight gain, hypoglycemia, gastrointestinal tract disturbances, liver injury, renal failure, hypersensitivity reactions, flatulence, diarrhea, and abdominal bloating [1,10,11]. In addition, these drugs have been known to have other major disadvantages, including drug resistance, and there is also a lack of therapies to prevent the long-term complications of the disease.
The complications associated with insulin and oral antidiabetic agents, together with limited drug tolerability, adverse effects, and cost, have accelerated the search for alternative medicines with better efficacy, potency, and fewer side effects [12]. Interestingly, there has been an increase in popularity surrounding drug discovery research into natural antidiabetic agents, especially those derived from medicinal plants, which could enhance β-cell function and treat diabetes-associated complications with fewer adverse side effects [13].
Herbal medicines contain a diversity of phytochemicals and have been traditionally used for treating a wide variety of diseases. They are considered to be naturally safe and efficacious with fewer side effects [12]. The control and management of diabetes using herbal drugs have proven to be more advantageous over synthetic medicines due to their accessibility, reduced cost, lesser complications, and lower side effects. Herbal medicines act via different mechanisms aiming at reducing insulin resistance, increasing insulin secretion, protecting pancreatic beta cells, and thereby lowering circulating blood glucose levels [14].
Throughout the years, thousands of plant species have been used for their medicinal uses as integrative medicines for various diseases, of which more than 800 plants have been reported to exhibit antidiabetic effects [15]. Such plants have been examined for their use in the treatment of the different types of diabetes and could be potential sources for new natural antidiabetic drug discovery research [16]. A number of medicinal plants used traditionally for their antidiabetic activity are currently under investigation to be formulated commercially as modern drugs. This is particularly the case in developing countries where the cost of allopathic medicine is high, and the traditional use of plants to treat diabetes is common practice [15]. Traditional natural medicines are extensively prescribed in Asian countries (e.g., China, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Japan, and others) [17]. Among the medicinal plants possessing hypoglycemic effects, the most common ones used as remedies for diabetes include Acacia arabica, Aegle marmelos, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Aloe vera, Annona squamosa, Azadirachta indica, Berberis vulgaris, Camellia sinensis, Capsicum frutescens, Cassia alata, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Eucalyptus globulus, Eugenia jambolana, Helicteres isora, Momordica charantia, Panax ginseng, Punica granatum, Swertia chirayita, Trigonella foenum-graecum, and others [15,16,18,19]. The antidiabetic activity of these plants is thought to be mediated via various mechanisms, including the stimulation of insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, increasing insulin binding to receptors, reduction in insulin resistance, and improving glucose tolerance. Other modes of action include enhancing glucose metabolism, improving β-cell mass and function, and increasing plasma insulin, thus decreasing circulating blood glucose levels [20,21,22,23]. In addition to being used to treat diabetes, these plants have also been traditionally employed to treat other conditions such as ulcers, wounds, inflammation, infections, diarrhea, dysentery, malaria, rheumatism, hypertension, obesity, pneumonia, and kidney diseases [12,19,24,25,26]. The main objective of this review is to explore the traditional plant-based therapies and/or their phytoconstituents available for the treatment of diabetes. These could provide the basis for the discovery of new antidiabetic drugs with fewer side effects and stronger efficacy than currently available medicines.

2. Methods

A literature search was carried out via Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and PubMed databases to accumulate data for this review article using the keywords “Diabetes mellitus,” “Medicinal Plants,” “Traditional medicine,” “Antidiabetic phytochemicals,” and “Plant-based antidiabetic therapy.” The data search was not restricted to a specific time period; however, around 98% of the gathered data were published between 2000 and 2022, and only 2% were published before 2000. Our data collection began in early January until late May 2022. More than 700 papers were found relevant to our study, and after performing a primary screening, around 400 papers were selected to be critically examined. An overview of the key findings has been presented in this current review.

3. Ethnomedicines and Their Scope in the Modern World

Ethnomedicine is a traditional health care practice followed by indigenous people concerned with human health. It is the origin of all other traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Nature Cure, as well as modern medicine [27]. Knowledge of plants presenting therapeutic properties has been passed on by experimenting through trials and errors from one generation to the next for more than hundreds of years. Ethnomedicines are highly prevalent in the rural and native communities of several developing countries [28]. According to information collected from the World Health Organization, about 80% of the global population relies upon traditional remedies [29]. Medicinal plants have always been recognized as a major source of raw materials for both conventional and traditional medicines [30]. In India, the poor and rural residents are dependent upon natural herbal remedies since they are easily obtainable to them. Indeed, plant-based medicines are the sole source of medical management for people living in remote areas. In countries such as Russia, Africa, and a few European countries, ethnomedicines are being studied by various botanists, anthropologists, folklorists, and medical scientists [27]. The inability for people to access adequate healthcare, alongside financial restrictions, has resulted in the under-provision of modern health care for a majority of the people in underdeveloped countries. [31]. Numerous folk remedies are recorded as being effective in treating various diseases (such as digestive tract disorders, skin diseases, renal and liver diseases, malaria, ulcers, heart diseases, pneumonia, diabetes, and many others), and thus, even developed countries have also considered utilizing these medicines [32].

4. Plant-Based Medicine versus Synthetic Medicine

Many drugs that are currently available have been derived directly or indirectly from natural sources such as medicinal plants and animals [33,34]. Plant-derived natural products have played and continue to play a prominent role in drug discovery and development programs. The increase in the number of herbal drug manufacturing companies, linked to the current increase in interest and demand for herbal medicines, can be largely expanded because of the toxicity and numerous adverse effects of allopathic medicines [35]. The convenience of accessibility, availability, inexpensiveness, and relatively low risks of side effects, have caused plant-based medicines to be an important alternative source of existing therapies, especially in rural and/or developing regions [33]. Plant-based medicines also provide a rich source of biologically active compounds that possess pharmacological activity with minimal undesirable effects [33].
Over the centuries, plant-based medicines have been widely used to treat the ailments of local communities of many developing countries that have easy access to these sources. Densely populated countries, such as China and India, have especially contributed to the advancement of sophisticated traditional medical systems such as acupuncture, ayurvedic medicine, and herbal medicine [36]. Many factors should be considered when selecting the appropriate medications for the management and treatment of diabetes. This includes efficacy, adverse effects, cost, and potential to contribute to weight gain, risks associated with hypoglycemia, comorbidities, and patient compliance. Even though oral antihyperglycemic agents can lower plasma glucose levels by improving insulin secretion or reducing insulin resistance, they are associated with many other adverse effects. Metformin, the mainstay of treatment in type 2 diabetes, has a high safety profile, yet it is still associated with mild side effects such as low risks of hypoglycemia and gastrointestinal tract disturbances (nausea, diarrhea, dyspepsia). Previous studies have shown that continuous use of metformin may result in vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiency in humans [37]. DPP-IV inhibitors such as sitagliptin, saxagliptin, and linagliptin, have been found to cause headaches, nasopharyngitis, and upper respiratory tract infections [38]. The most common adverse effect of sulphonylureas such as glimepiride and gliclazide is hypoglycemia. These drugs are also associated with minor side effects such as weight gain, nausea, headaches, drowsiness, and hypersensitivity reactions. The most serious complication of insulin injections is hypoglycemia. Insulin may also cause weight gain or loss, dizziness, confusion, and sweating [38]. In contrast to synthetic drugs, plant-based medicines do not interrupt the body’s natural healing process; instead, they accelerate the recovery process by strengthening the healing process, ultimately leading to a steady recovery. Alongside their ability to help the body recover to a healthy status, herbal medicines are also known for boosting the immune system. The use of highly effective herbal medicines showing fewer side effects and a strong immune system together with a healthy lifestyle promotes better body metabolism with increased nutritional absorption from the diet [35]. Whether they have insulinotropic, insulin-mimetic, or any other antihyperglycemic effects, medicinal plants are considered safer and more effective alternatives to synthetic antidiabetic drugs [39].

5. Pharmacological Activity of Plant-Based Medicines

Although knowledge of many plant-based therapies has been transmitted through generations, only a few of these have started to come to the fore recently. However, there is still some uncertainty regarding their pharmacological activity as well as their acute/chronic side effects due to such medicines being broadly underreported [40]. Few plants have proven to be efficacious for which they were intended, whilst some were not strongly therapeutically effective and/or sufficient scientific data were lacking to support their expected effects [41]. The increase in the widespread use of plant-based therapies has led to an urgent need for a detailed scientific examination of the chemicals responsible for pharmacological activity. Indeed, such a study of the pharmacological properties and phytoconstituents of plant-based medicines may lead to the discovery of new pharmacological characteristics previously unknown or used in traditional medicine [42]. Herbal medicines have been suggested to exert their mechanism of action by concurrently targeting multiple physiological processes via interactions between different biochemicals and cellular proteins [43].
Herbal medications may be able to alter the biological systems from disease to a healthy state by causing the interactions between multi-component and multi-target. Because of the therapeutic properties of the phytomolecules, a lower dosage may be used, resulting in less toxicity and adverse effects. [43]. The antidiabetic activity of medicinal plants is dependent upon the phytochemicals that act through multiple pathways, such as cAMP: which stimulates insulin secretion without affecting the KATP channel [44]; PI3K: which facilitates glucose uptake by the translocation of the glucose transporter in skeletal muscles, adipose tissue, or liver [45]; AMPK: The activation of 5ʹ-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase pathway improves insulin sensitivity by limiting lipolysis and lipogenesis, and AMPK also enhances glucose uptake in skeletal muscles by translocating GLUT4-containing intracellular vesicles across the plasma membrane [46,47]. For example, phlorizin obtained from the bark of apple and pear trees increases glucose excretion in urine by decreasing glucose reabsorption in the kidneys via the inhibition of SGLT and thus, lowers plasma glucose concentration [48]. Some of the phytomolecules have the potential to regenerate and protect pancreatic beta cells from destruction by reducing the glucose load [49], inhibiting α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, inducing glucose uptake in 3T3L1 cells [50,51], inhibiting aldose reductase enzyme activity, glycogen metabolizing enzymes, exerting hepato-pancreatic protective activity, inhibiting glucose-6-phosphate and DPP-IV, reducing lactic dehydrogenase, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, glycosylated hemoglobin levels, and inhibiting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver [20,52]. As an example, a summary of the different pathways involved in the antidiabetic activity of flavonoids is illustrated in Figure 1. A summary of antidiabetic medicinal plants and their pharmacological actions has been shown in Table 1.

6. Phytochemicals and Their Impact on Diabetes

Plants are the primary source of biologically active compounds that may ultimately lead to the discovery and development of potential new drugs [238]. Plants produce both primary and secondary metabolites. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are considered primary metabolites, necessary for the growth and development of plants and involved in essential metabolic pathways, such as photosynthesis and glycolysis. Secondary metabolites are not required for the growth and development of plants; rather, they are responsible for interactions between plant species and the environment and have highly specific functions in plants [239].
Over 13,000 secondary metabolites have been purified and isolated from medicinal plants. These phytochemicals can be categorized into various chemical classes such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolics, tannins, saponins, xanthones, and glycosides [78]. Many of these phytochemicals are known to exhibit medicinal properties, including antidiabetic activity [78]. Several phytochemicals isolated from various plant species have been scientifically validated for their contribution to treating and managing diabetes by exerting antihyperglycemic activity and reducing the complications associated with diabetes [171]. For example, the flavonoid rutin, present in the leaves of numerous plants, including Annona squamosa and Azadirachta indica (neem), has been reported to possess many beneficial effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-allergic, antiviral, and antioxidative properties [240]. Rutin-containing plants have also been shown to protect against heart disease, hepatotoxicity, and diabetes mellitus [240]. Rutin exerts its antidiabetic effect by lowering plasma glucose, improving the function of pancreatic β-cells, and enhancing glucose tolerance [10]. Two other flavonoids found in the leaves of Annona squamosa, namely quercetin and isoquercetin, have also been reported to possess antihyperglycemic activity by inhibiting α-glucosidase and lowering blood glucose levels [241]. Alongside rutin and quercetin, the tetranortriterpenoid meliacinolin, isolated from the leaves of A. indica, has been found to inhibit α-glucosidase and α-amylase in Type 2 diabetic mice [98]. Nimbidin, extracted from neem seeds, is another phytochemical exhibiting hypoglycemic properties [98]. Quercetin, allicin, allyl-propyl disulfide, cysteine sulfoxide, and S-allyl cysteine sulfoxide from Allium sativum (garlic) have been reported to stimulate insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, increase insulin sensitivity to target cells, and prevent insulin activation triggered by the liver [71]. Alliin, from garlic, has been reported to mimic the function of glibenclamide and insulin [71]. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin-3-gallate, and epicatechin present in Camellia sinensis (tea) leaves can also lower plasma glucose levels by improving β-cell function, increasing insulin secretion, and enhancing glucose metabolism [117]. These phytomolecules may exert their antidiabetic activity in multiple manners, most commonly by being insulinotropic, insulin-mimetic, and by improving β-cell function, increasing insulin sensitivity, improving glucose tolerance and metabolism, as well as inhibiting various enzyme activities. A summary of antidiabetic medicinal plants and their phytochemicals with potential antidiabetic effects is provided in Table 2. The chemical structures of the antidiabetic phytoconstituents of medicinal plants are given in Table 3.

7. Plant-Based Drug Formulations Available on the Market and Their Role in Diabetes

For the past few decades, there has been an increasingly growing trend in many European countries to develop and sell plant-based medicines [370]. The latter are known as herbal formulations or phytomedicines. These preparations have been standardized and confirmed for their safety profile and effectiveness in the treatment of various diseases. Similar to any other allopathic medicine, herbal formulations can also be prepared as diverse formulations such as tablets, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, solutions, emulsions, and powders [371]. Phytomedicines can either be single herb- or polyherbal formulations [35]. Several phytomedicines have been marketed worldwide for the control and management of diabetes. These include Antibetic, Diabetics, Diabetica, Diabet, Diasol, Diabecon, Diasulin, Dia-Care, Diabecure, Diabeta, Diabeta Plus, Dianex, Diashis, GlucoCare, GlycoNase, Glyoherb, Karmin Plus, SugarMax, and Sugar Loss [35,372]. These products comprise a combination of individual constituents from several antidiabetic plants. Many of these preparations are sold with directions about diet, rest, and physical activities to enhance their effectiveness [35,372].

8. The Future of Plant-Based Antidiabetic Medicines

Nearly 75% of the globally used herbal medicines have been developed based on traditional medicine practitioners [24]. Medicinal plants will continue to be used for their natural safety and potency in many remedies, as well as cosmetics, perfumes, and in the food and beverages industry [373]. Biologically active components derived from traditional medicinal plants have yielded several clinically used drugs and still play a key role in the discovery of new medicines. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that plants used in folk medicine can be used as a potential source for the discovery of new drugs to treat diabetes. The most frequently recommended synthetic drug, metformin, has blood glucose-lowering properties in Type 2 diabetes and the search for many such drugs persists [370]. Moreover, any plant-derived antidiabetic drug with a novel mode of action compared to existing antidiabetic agents has a high potential to be used in clinics [374]. Although the use of plant-based medicines is widespread in developing countries, recently, developed countries have also shown interest in using herbal drugs and therapies. With the rise in the incidence of diabetes mellitus, the demand for plant-based antidiabetic medicines is increasing worldwide. It is expected that countries such as China, India, and Japan, which have an abundance of medicinal plant species and are the greatest exporters of medicinal plants worldwide, will be the most sought [375]. More studies are required regarding the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of different phytoconstituents in laboratory animals and in clinical use to establish the benefits and mode(s) of action of these compounds in the treatment and management of diabetes. Extensive investigations into the pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and tissue distribution of medicinal plants and their phytomolecules are necessary for the development of new potent antidiabetic drugs [376].

9. Conclusions

Diabetes mellitus has risen as a major public health crisis, particularly in underdeveloped countries. Thus, recent research efforts have been centered on the discovery of new natural sources of antidiabetic therapies for the treatment and management of diabetes. As traditional medicinal plants with antidiabetic activity may be considered potential candidates for diabetes management in the long run, they are being extensively researched for novel targets, mechanisms of action, and routes of administration. Plant-based antidiabetic medicines are inexpensive, readily available, and hold low risks of side effects. This makes them promising new antidiabetic agents. With the progression of medicinal plant-based research, scientists and physicians have started to develop newer classes of antidiabetic drugs based on the pharmacology of the phytochemicals isolated from these plants. However, more studies are required for in-depth investigation of these newly discovered antidiabetic drugs at the molecular, therapeutic, and physiological levels in order to control and manage diabetes mellitus worldwide.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, P.A. and Y.H.A.A.-W.; formal Analysis, P.A. and S.A.; funding acquisition, Y.H.A.A.-W. and J.M.A.H.; investigation, resources, writing, and editing, P.A., S.A., V.S. and N.J.N.; Visualization, P.A. and J.M.A.H.; supervision and reviewing, P.A. and Y.H.A.A.-W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We would like to extend our appreciation to Peter R Flatt, School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, UK and Independent University, Bangladesh for his aid, guidance, and support in creating the innovative ideas.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

AMPK5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase
cAMPcyclic Adenosine monophosphate
DPP-IVDipeptidyl peptidase-4
G6PaseGlucose-6-phosphatase
GLP-1Glucagon-like peptide-1
GLUT-2Glucose transporter-2
GLUT-4Glucose transporter-4
HbA1cHemoglobin A1c
IDFInternational Diabetes Federation
KATPAdenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel
PEPCKPhosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
PI3K/AKTPhosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B
PKAProtein kinase A
PPAR-γPeroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ
SGLTSodium–glucose linked transporter

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Molecules 27 04278 g001 550
Figure 1. Flavonoids exerting antidiabetic activity via different mechanistic pathways: Flavonoids increase insulin secretion and improve β-cell function via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway; increase GLUT-4 translocation through AMPK activation to increase glucose uptake in adipose tissues and skeletal muscles; activate PPAR-γ expression to decrease insulin resistance; activate cAMP/PKA pathway to reduce blood glucose levels and improve glucose tolerance; increase glutathione peroxidase activity to reduce HbA1c levels; decrease G-6-Pase, PEPCK, glycogen phosphorylase, fructose 1,6-biphosphatase and DPP-IV activity in liver to decrease gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and glycoslysis; inhibit SGLT pathway in kidney to decrease renal glucose reabsorption; inhibit GLUT-2, α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity to decrease glucose absorption in the small intestine.
Figure 1. Flavonoids exerting antidiabetic activity via different mechanistic pathways: Flavonoids increase insulin secretion and improve β-cell function via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway; increase GLUT-4 translocation through AMPK activation to increase glucose uptake in adipose tissues and skeletal muscles; activate PPAR-γ expression to decrease insulin resistance; activate cAMP/PKA pathway to reduce blood glucose levels and improve glucose tolerance; increase glutathione peroxidase activity to reduce HbA1c levels; decrease G-6-Pase, PEPCK, glycogen phosphorylase, fructose 1,6-biphosphatase and DPP-IV activity in liver to decrease gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and glycoslysis; inhibit SGLT pathway in kidney to decrease renal glucose reabsorption; inhibit GLUT-2, α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity to decrease glucose absorption in the small intestine.
Molecules 27 04278 g001
Table
Table 1. Traditional uses and pharmacological effects of antidiabetic medicinal plants.
Table 1. Traditional uses and pharmacological effects of antidiabetic medicinal plants.
Medicinal PlantsPartsTraditional UsesPharmacological EffectsReferences
  • Abrus precatorius
Leaves, seedsDiabetes, wounds, fever, cough, cold, tetanusImproves β-cell function, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[53,54]
2.
Acacia arabica
Bark, rootsDiabetes, astringent, diarrhea, parasitic worms, diuretic, liver tonicLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and glucose tolerance[24,55]
3.
Acacia catechu
BarkDiabetes, asthma, bronchitis, diarrhea, obesity, dysentery, skin diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion[56,57,58]
4.
Aegle marmelos
LeavesDiabetes, dysentery, inflammation, ulcer, diarrhea, asthmaLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, glucose uptake and metabolism, inhibits aldose reductase and DPP-IV enzyme activity[56,59,60]
5.
Aframomum melegueta
Fruit, leaves Diabetes, cough, diarrhea, stomach ache, leprosy, hypertension, measlesLowers plasma glucose levels, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[61,62]
6.
Ageratum conyzoides
LeavesDiabetes, fever, rheumatism, cardiovascular diseases, malaria, wounds, spasmsLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion[63,64]
7.
Albizia lebbeck
Bark, podsDiabetes, asthma, diarrhea, infections, dysentery, inflammationLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, enhances glucose uptake[56,65,66]
8.
Albizia adianthifolia
Bark, leavesDiabetes, eye problems, hemorrhoids, skin diseases, wounds, malaria diarrhea, indigestionLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance[16,67]
9.
Allium cepa
BulbDiabetes, bronchitis, hypertension, skin infections, swelling, lower cholesterol levelIncreases insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake [68,69]
10.
Allium sativum
BulbDiabetes, fever, hypertension, rheumatism, dysentery, bronchitis, intestinal wormsIncreases insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity to cells[70,71]
11.
Aloe vera
Leaves Diabetes, constipation, infections, ulcer, dysentery, piles, rheumatoid arthritisLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, improves glucose tolerance[72,73]
12.
Anacradium occidentale
Leaves, stem barkDiabetes, fever, hypertension, rheumatism, toothache, piles, dysentery Lowers blood glucose levels, reduces oxidative stress, decreases total cholesterol and triglyceride levels[74,75,76]
13.
Anemarrhena asphodeloides
RhizomeDiabetes, fever, cough, inflammation, infections, night sweats, dementiaLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake [77,78]
14.
Annona salzmannii
Leaves, barkDiabetes, inflammation, tumorsLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion[79,80]
15.
Annona squamosa
LeavesDiabetes, wounds, inflammation, hypertension, malaria, insect bitesLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance and β-cell function [10,81]
16.
Anogeissus latifolia
BarkDiabetes, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, dysentery, snake bites, stomach disorders, skin diseases, leprosyDecreases blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, inhibits DPP-IV enzyme activity[56,82,83]
17.
Arachis hypogaea
SeedsDiabetes, inflammation, heart diseases, coagulation, rheumatism, hypertension, Alzheimer’s diseaseIncreases insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, improves glucose tolerance[84,85,86]
18.
Artemisia absinthium
RhizomeDiabetes, wounds, indigestion, gastritis, anemia, hepatitis, cardiovascular diseases, gall bladder disordersIncreases insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake, enhances GLUT-4 translocation[87,88,89]
19.
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Leaves, rhizomeDiabetes, diarrhea, malaria, wounds, anemia, inflammation Lowers blood glucose levels, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels[78,90]
20.
Asparagus racemosus
Roots Diabetes, constipation, ulcers, stomach disorders, cough, inflammationIncreases insulin secretion and action, improves β-cell function, inhibits carbohydrate digestion and absorption[91,92,93,94]
21.
Atractylodes japonica
RhizomeDiabetes, rheumatism, gastrointestinal diseases, influenza, night blindness, diuretic, stomachicLowers blood glucose levels, reduces insulin resistance, improves glucose uptake[95,96]
22.
Azadirachta indica
LeavesDiabetes, malaria skin diseases, infections, cardiovascular diseases, intestinal wormsLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves pancreatic β-cell function, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, enhances glucose uptake[56,97,98]
23.
Balanites aegyptiaca
FruitDiabetes, wounds, asthma, malaria, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, fever, infectionsIncreases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake, inhibits α-glucosidase activity[99,100]
24.
Berberis vulgaris
Root, barkDiabetes, eye infections, piles, wounds, snake bites, hemorrhoids, dysenteryReduces blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion[101,102]
25.
Bidens pilosa
RootDiabetes, wounds, hepatitis, diarrhea, urinary tract infections, cold, glandular sclerosisIncreases plasma insulin, improves glucose tolerance, protects or prevents islet degeneration[103,104]
26.
Bougainvillea spectabilis
Flowers, leavesDiabetes, inflammation, ulcers, sore throat, infections, contraceptiveRegenerates β-cell function, increases plasma insulin levels, reduces intestinal glucosidase activity[105,106]
27.
Brassica juncea
Leaves, seedsDiabetes, arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, coughs, paralysisIncreases insulin secretion and glucose utilization[16,107]
28.
Bridelia ferruginea
Leaves, stem barkDiabetes, headache, arthritis, fever, inflammationLowers blood glucose levels, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[108,109]
29.
Bunium persicum
Seeds Diabetes, diarrhea, gastrointestinal disorders, inflammation, obesity, asthmaLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose uptake and utilization[56,110,111]
30.
Caesalpinia decapetala
Leaves Diabetes, indigestion, flatulence, stomach aches, constipation, feverLowers blood glucose levels, protects pancreatic beta cells, decreases oxidative stress[112,113]
31.
Calendula officinalis
Leaves, barkDiabetes, fever, infections, wounds, menstrual irregularity, poor eyesight, inflammation, ulcersLowers blood glucose levels, increases plasma insulin levels[114,115]
32.
Camellia sinensis
LeavesDiabetes, heart diseases, diuretic, astringent, stimulant, flatulenceIncreases insulin secretion and action, inhibit insulin glycation, DPP-IV enzyme, and α-amylase activity, improves glucose tolerance [116,117]
33.
Capsicum frutescens
Whole plantDiabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, toothache, pain, muscle spasms, fever, infectionsIncreases insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake[118,119]
34.
Carica papaya
Fruit, leavesDiabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, dengue, malaria, nerve pains, insomnia, constipationLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, suppresses glucagon secretion[120,121]
35.
Cassia alata
Leaves, seedsDiabetes, skin diseases, rheumatism, constipation, ringworm, infections, inflammationLowers blood glucose levels, inhibits α-glucosidase activity [122,123]
36.
Cassia fistula
Stalk Diabetes, wounds, constipation, piles, skin diseases, asthma, liver diseases, rheumatism, leprosyLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization[56,124,125,126,127]
37.
Catharanthus roseus
Leaves, rootsDiabetes, hypertension, menstrual irregularity, cancer, wounds, muscle painLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake and utilization[128,129,130]
38.
Cecropia obtusifolia
Root barkDiabetes, asthma, bronchitis, heart diseases, inflammation, wounds, hypertensionLowers blood glucose levels, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels[78,131]
39.
Cichorium intybus
Bark, leavesDiabetes, constipation, wounds, liver diseasesIncreases insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake [78,132]
40.
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
BarkDiabetes, common cold, flu, gastrointestinal disorders, bacterial infections, headache, stomach painIncreases plasma insulin levels, increases insulin sensitivity, inhibits α-amylase activity[133,134]
41.
Citrus limon
FruitDiabetes, hypertension, infections, scurvy, sore throat, rheumatismLowers plasma glucose levels, inhibits α-amylase activity[135,136]
42.
Citrus x aurantium
FruitDiabetes, insomnia, indigestion, constipation, heartburn, nausea, cardiovascular diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion[137,138]
43.
Cola nitida
SeedsDiabetes, dysentery, fatigue, CNS stimulant, morning sickness, migraine, indigestion, woundsLowers blood glucose levels, increases serum insulin levels[139,140]
44.
Coptis chinensis
RhizomeDiabetes, sore throat, whooping cough, dysentery, neurodegenerative diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin sensitivity, improves glucose uptake[141,142]
45.
Cornus officinalis
Fruit, seedsDiabetes, pain, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, liver, and kidney diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, inhibits α-glucosidase activity, increases GLUT-4 expression[143,144]
46.
Curcuma longa
RhizomeDiabetes, gastric, inflammation, infections, cough, pain, liver diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, increases insulin secretion, improves peripheral glucose uptake, reduces insulin resistance[78,145,146]
47.
Cudrania cochinchinensis
Bark, rootsDiabetes, hepatitis, scabies, bruises, gonorrhea, jaundice, rheumatismLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization, inhibits DPP-IV enzyme and α-glucosidase activity[56,147,148]
48.
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Fruit Diabetes, night blindness, arthritis, sprains, constipation, asthma, liver diseases, obesityIncreases insulin secretion, protects pancreatic beta cells, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels[149,150]
49.
Dalbergia sissoo
Bark Diabetes, stomach disorders, dysentery, skin diseases, syphilis, nausea, gonorrheaLowers blood glucose levels, reduces serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels[56,151,152]
50.
Eriobotrya japonica
Leaves, seedsDiabetes, bronchitis, inflammation, coughLowers blood glucose levels, reduces insulin resistance, improves glucose tolerance[153,154]
51.
Eucalyptus citriodora
LeavesDiabetes, fever, pain, sinusitis, bronchitis, asthma, chronic rhinitis, Increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake, inhibits insulin glycation and DPP-IV enzyme activity, decreases starch digestion[155,156]
52.
Eucalyptus globulus
LeavesDiabetes, cough, cold, wounds, fungal infections, fever, sore throat, painIncreases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake[157,158]
53.
Euclea undulata
Root, barkDiabetes, cough, chest pain, diarrhea, headache, toothacheLowers blood glucose levels, inhibits α-glucosidase activity[78,159]
54.
Eugenia jambolana
SeedsDiabetes, skin ulcers, gastritis, constipation, sore throat, liver, and kidney diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, improves pancreatic β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, inhibits sucrase and maltase activity, improves glucose uptake and metabolism[56,160,161]
55.
Euphorbia hirta
LeavesDiabetes, respiratory diseases, diarrhea, jaundice, tumors, gonorrheaIncreases insulin release from beta cells, inhibits α-glucosidase activity[162,163]
56.
Ficus benghalensis
Bark, leavesDiabetes, hypertension, dysentery, diarrhea, pain, ulcers, asthmaDecrease carbohydrate digestion and absorption, lowers blood glucose levels[164,165]
57.
Garcinia kola
SeedsDiabetes, diarrhea, food poisoning, bacterial infections, cough, liver diseasesInhibits α-amylase activity, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels[166,167]
58.
Glycine max
SeedsDiabetes, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, cancerReduces insulin resistance, improves glucose tolerance[168,169]
59.
Glycyrrhiza glabra
RootsDiabetes, epilepsy, respiratory diseases, paralysis, jaundice, rheumatismLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion[56,170]
60.
Gymnema sylvestre
LeavesDiabetes, asthma, bronchitis, constipation, jaundice, dyspepsia, hemorrhoids, obesityLowers blood glucose levels, regenerates beta cells, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance[171,172]
61.
Harungana madagascariensis
LeavesDiabetes, cancer, hernia, hypertension, jaundice, malaria, yellow feverLowers blood glucose levels, inhibits α-amylase activity[16,173]
62.
Helicteres isora
Roots Diabetes, diarrhea, snake bites, gastrointestinal disorders, spasmsLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose uptake[174,175]
63.
Heritiera fomes
Bark Diabetes, diarrhea, constipation, dysentery, dermatitis, scabies, goiterDecreases carbohydrate digestion and glucose absorption, lowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, inhibits DPP-IV enzyme activity[26,51,176]
64.
Hibiscus esculentus
Roots, seedsDiabetes, gastric irritations, inflammatory diseases, wounds, and boilsLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion[177,178]
65.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
LeavesDiabetes, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, pain, contraceptiveReduces glucose absorption, lowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and hepatic glucose utilization, improves glucose tolerance, inhibits DPP-IV activity[179,180]
66.
Jatropha curcas
Leaves Diabetes, fever, bacterial and fungal infections, jaundice, muscle painLowers fasting blood glucose levels, improves glucose uptake and utilization[181,182]
67.
Lantana camara
LeavesDiabetes, asthma, malaria, chicken pox, hypertension, measlesLowers elevated blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance[183,184]
68.
Linum usitatissimum
Seeds Diabetes, diarrhea, gastrointestinal infections, asthma, bronchitis, atherosclerosisLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and metabolism[56,185]
69.
Mangifera indica
Leaves, seedsDiabetes, constipation, piles, dysentery, asthma, anemia, hypertension, hemorrhage, Lowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake, inhibits α-glucosidase and DPP-IV activity[56,186,187]
70.
Momordica charantia
Leaves, seedsDiabetes, malaria, hypertension, scabies, liver diseases, obesity, ulcers, measlesLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and glucose uptake, improves glucose tolerance, decreases gluconeogenesis, inhibits α-glucosidase activity[56,134,188]
71.
Moringa oleifera
LeavesDiabetes, asthma, enlarged liver, bacterial infections, eye problems, piles, influenza, diureticReduces glucose absorption, lowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose uptake, inhibits α-amylase activity[189,190]
72.
Murraya koenigii
LeavesDiabetes, piles, dysentery, itching, bruises, inflammationLowers blood glucose levels, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[78,191]
73.
Musa sapientum
Flowers Diabetes, dysentery, ulcers, hypertension, pain, inflammation, snake bites Lowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, decreases glucosylated hemoglobin levels[192,193]
74.
Nigella sativa
Seeds Diabetes, hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, back pain, paralysis, heart diseases, bacterial infections, malariaDecreases carbohydrate digestion and absorption, lowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and sensitivity, improves glucose uptake and utilization[194,195]
75.
Ocimum basicllicum
LeavesDiabetes, headaches, constipation, coughs, kidney diseases, wartsInhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, reduces oxidative stress, inhibits glycogenolysis[196,197,198]
76.
Ocimum sanctum
Leaves Diabetes, ringworm, skin diseases, dysentery, dyspepsia, bronchitis, asthmaIncreases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization[149,199]
77.
Olea europaea
LeavesDiabetes, constipation, urinary tract infections, asthma, hypertension, intestinal diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, increases antioxidant activity[200,201]
78.
Panax ginseng
RootsDiabetes, insomnia, anorexia, confusion, hemorrhage Improves peripheral insulin action, increases insulin sensitivity, decreases carbohydrate absorption[202,203]
79.
Panda oleosa
Stem barkDiabetes, HIV/AIDS, wounds, rheumatism, intestinal parasitesLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance[16,204]
80.
Phaseolus vulgaris
SeedsDiabetes, hypertension, obesity, blood cancerReduces insulin resistance, inhibits α-amylase and DPP-IV enzyme activity[149,205]
81.
Phyllanthus amarus
LeavesDiabetes, spleen, liver and kidney diseases, gonorrhea, stomach problemsLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves insulin sensitivity[206,207]
82.
Plantago ovata
HuskDiabetes, constipation, diarrhea, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, hemorrhoids Improves glucose tolerance, decreases carbohydrate digestion and glucose absorption [208,209]
83.
Pterocarpus marsupium
Bark Diabetes, dysentery, cough, diarrhea, skin diseases, wounds, ulcerImproves pancreatic β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake[149,210,211]
84.
Punica granatum
FlowersDiabetes, urinary tract infections, arthritis, sore throat, skin diseases, anemiaImproves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion[210,212,213]
85.
Rehmannia glutinosa
RootsDiabetes, anemia, obesity, kidney diseases, osteoporosisImproves pancreatic β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake, decreases oxidative stress[214,215]
86.
Santalum album
Bark Diabetes, jaundice, diarrhea, dysentery, liver tonic, inflammation, hypertensionLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization [56,216]
87.
Selaginella bryopteris
Leaves Diabetes, fever, epilepsy, constipation, colitis, cancer, urinary tract infectionsLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization [56,217]
88.
Sesamum indicum
SeedsDiabetes, constipation, hypertension, high cholesterol, athlete’s footInhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, exerts antioxidant activity[56,218,219]
89.
Solanum nigrum
LeavesDiabetes, pneumonia, toothache, stomach ache, fever, tumor, tonsilitisLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, decreases gluconeogenesis, increases glycogenesis [220,221]
90.
Spirulina platensis
Whole plantDiabetes, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis, obesityLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, inhibits DPP-IV activity[222,223]
91.
Swertia chirayita
Bark, leavesDiabetes, malaria, hypertension, epilepsy, liver diseases, weight lossLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and metabolism, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase[56,224]
92.
Tamarindus indica
Seeds Diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, abdominal pain, wounds, malariaLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion[56,225]
93.
Terminalia arjuna
Bark Diabetes, cardiotonic, anemia, viral infections, venereal diseases, ulcersLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization[56,226]
94.
Terminalia chebula
FruitDiabetes, fever, astringent, constipation, dementiaImproves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, reduces glycosylated hemoglobin levels[227,228]
95.
Tinospora cordifolia
Leaves, roots, stemDiabetes, dysentery, diarrhea, snake bites, asthma, fever, jaundiceIncreases insulin secretion, inhibits gluconeogenesis, increases insulin sensitivity[149,229]
96.
Trigonella foenum-graecum
SeedsDiabetes, bronchitis, pneumonia, indigestion, dysentery, high cholesterolLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and utilization[56,134,230,231]
97.
Urtica dioica
LeavesDiabetes, cardiovascular diseases, anemia, rhinitis, arthritis, gout, woundsIncreases insulin sensitivity, improves glucose tolerance[232,233]
98.
Vernonia amygdalina
LeavesDiabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, amoebic dysentery, malaria, helminth infectionsLowers elevated blood glucose levels, inhibits gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis[234,235]
99.
Withania coagulans
Fruit Diabetes, insomnia, impotence, nervous exhaustion, asthma, liver diseasesLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance[56,236]
100.
Zingiber officinale
RhizomeDiabetes, nausea, high cholesterol, heartburn, indigestion, diarrhea, asthmaLowers fasting blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion[119,237]
Table
Table 2. Phytoconstituents of antidiabetic medicinal plants and their pharmacological effects.
Table 2. Phytoconstituents of antidiabetic medicinal plants and their pharmacological effects.
Medicinal PlantsPartsPhytoconstituentsPharmacological EffectsReferences
  • Abrus precatorius
Leaves, seedsLuteolin, lupenone, 24-methylene cycloartenolMaintains blood glucose levels, promotes insulin secretion, prevents oxidative stress, inhibits inflammation in pancreatic tissues[16,242,243]
2.
Acacia arabica
Bark, rootsQuercetin, kaempferol, catechinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, improves glucose tolerance, reduces oxidative stress[24,244]
3.
Acacia catechu
BarkCatechin, epicatechin, catechu tannic acid, gallocatechin, kaempferolLowers blood glucose levels, increases plasma insulin levels, reduces insulin resistance, and improves glucose uptake, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[24,244,245,246,247]
4.
Aegle marmelos
LeavesRutin, β-sitosterol, aegelinosides A and B, aegeline, marmelosinLowers plasma glucose levels, reduces insulin resistance, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels, inhibits α-glucosidase activity, improves β-cell function[248,249,250,251,252]
5.
Aframomum melegueta
Fruit, leaves6-paradol, 6-shogaol, 6-gingerol, oleanolic acidDecreases blood glucose and cholesterol levels, improve glucose tolerance and utilization, inhibits lipid synthesis by adipocytes[16,253,254,255]
6.
Ageratum conyzoides
LeavesKaempferol, precocene IILowers blood glucose levels, increases plasma insulin levels, improves glucose uptake[16,256]
7.
Albizia lebbeck
Bark, podsLupeol, oleanolic acid, docosanoic acid, β-sitosterol, catechin, friedelinDecreases blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, reduces nitric oxide, increases insulin levels, activates GLUT2 and GLUT4[244,250,255,257,258,259]
8.
Albizia adianthifolia
Bark, leavesβ-caryophyllene, viridiflorolLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and sensitivity, reduces glucose absorption, triglyceride, and cholesterol levels [67,260]
9.
Allium cepa
BulbAlliin, quercetin, S-methyl cysteine sulfoxideReduces fasting glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and sensitivity, decreases triglyceride levels[16,261,262]
10.
Allium sativum
BulbAllicin, alliin, diallyl disulfide, quercetin, allyl propyl disulfideLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and sensitivity, decreases cholesterol and triglyceride levels[71,261,262,263]
11.
Aloe vera
Leaves Lophenol, aloin, aloetic acid, emodin, glucomannanLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, prevents oxidative stress[16,264,265,266]
12.
Anacradium occidentale
Leaves, stem bark Anacardic acid, lectinDelays glucose absorption, reduces oxidative stress, inhibits α-glucosidase activity[16,267]
13.
Anemarrhena asphodeloides
Rhizome Mangiferin, neomangiferin, sarsasapogeninReduces fasting blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance, reduces cholesterol and triglyceride levels, improves diabetic complications[78,268,269,270]
14.
Annona salzmannii
Leaves, barkα-copaene, β-caryophyllene, δ-cadineneLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake, reduces glucose absorption, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels[80,260]
15.
Annona squamosa
LeavesRutin, quercetin, isoquercetinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, reduces glycosylated hemoglobin levels[10,249,262,271]
16.
Anogeissus latifolia
BarkEllagic acid, β-sitosterol, 3,4,3-tri-O-methylellagic acidLowers plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin levels, improves β-cell function[250,272,273]
17.
Arachis hypogaea
Seeds Resveratrol, catechin, rutin, quercetinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and glucose uptake, reduces oxidative stress, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[244,249,262,274]
18.
Artemisia absinthium
Rhizomeα and β thujones, thujyl alcohol, azulene, cadineneLowers blood glucose levels, activates adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, increases insulin sensitivity[16,275,276]
19.
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Leaves, rhizomeChrysin, silymarin, isoquercetinLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function and glucose tolerance, increases insulin sensitivity, inhibits Pro-inflammatory cytokines[78,271,277,278]
20.
Asparagus racemosus
Roots Asparagamine, asparagine, kaempferol, quercetinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and tolerance [93,256,262]
21.
Atractylodes japonica
RhizomeAtractans A, B, C, atractylenolide IIILowers blood glucose levels, decreases insulin resistance [95,96,279]
22.
Azadirachta indica
LeavesAzadirachtin, nimbin, rutin, quercetin, campestrolLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, reduces cholesterol and triglyceride levels[97,98,249,280]
23.
Balanites aegyptiaca
Fruit, seedsBalantin 1, 2, diosgenin, 3,4,6-tri-O-methyl-D-glucose, triethylphosphineIncreases serum insulin and c-peptide levels, increases glucose metabolism, decreases gluconeogenesis [16,281]
24.
Berberis vulgaris
Root barkBerberine, berbamineIncreases insulin secretion, improves insulin sensitivity, inhibits α-glucosidase and aldose reductase activity[102,282,283]
25.
Bidens pilosa
RootsCytopiloyne, apigenin, luteolin, kaempferol, quercetinLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin expression and secretion from beta cells, stimulates glucose metabolism, increases insulin sensitivity to cells[16,242,284,285,286]
26.
Bougainvillea spectabilis
Flowers, leavesPinitol, quercetin, β-sitosterolLowers fasting blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, improves insulin sensitivity[16,250,262,287]
27.
Brassica juncea
Leaves, seedsCinnamic acid, kaempferol, anilineLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and glucose uptake, improves glucose tolerance [16,256,288]
28.
Bridelia ferruginea
Leaves, stem barkEpigallocatechin, epigallocatechin gallateLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance, enhances insulin secretion, decreases gluconeogenesis[16,289,290]
29.
Bunium persicum
Seeds Linoleic acid, palmitic acid, kaempferol, camphene, linaloolLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels in blood, improves insulin sensitivity, enhances glucose uptake and tolerance[256,291,292,293,294]
30.
Caesalpinia decapetala
Leaves Quercitrin, kaempferol, astragalin, apigenin-7-rhamnosideDecreases fasting blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels in blood, enhances antioxidant activity, improves glucose uptake, decreases nitric oxide[16,256,295,296]
31.
Calendula officinalis
Leaves, barkCaffeic acid, quercetin, esculetinLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces diabetic oxidative stress, increases GLUT4 expression in adipocytes, improves glucose utilization[16,262,297,298]
32.
Camellia sinensis
LeavesRutin, quercitrinLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance[117,249,295]
33.
Capsicum frutescens
Whole plantCapsaicin, β-caroteneLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels, improves glucose tolerance, inhibits pro-inflammatory cytokines[119,299,300]
34.
Carica papaya
Fruit, leavesChlorogenic acid, coumarin compoundsLowers blood glucose levels, stimulates insulin secretion, increases insulin sensitivity, inhibits α-amylase, α-glucosidase, glucose-6-phosphatase, and aldose reductase activity[16,301,302]
35.
Cassia alata
Leaves, seedsEmodin, kaempferol, β-sitosterolLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, enhances insulin sensitivity, inhibits phosphoenolpyruvate, carboxykinase, glucose-6-phosphatase activity[16,250,256,266]
36.
Cassia fistula
Stalk Lupeol, kaempferol, catechin, epicatechinLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin levels, reduces nitric oxide, improves glucose tolerance[244,246,257,303]
37.
Catharanthus roseus
Leaves, rootsGallic acid, chlorogenic acid, vindoline ILowers blood glucose levels, stimulates insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, decreases pro-inflammatory cytokines[16,301,304,305]
38.
Cecropia obtusifolia
Root, barkIsoorientin, stigmast-4-en-3-one, chlorogenic acid, β-sitosterolReduces blood glucose levels, improves insulin sensitivity, enhances glucose uptake, decreases cholesterol and triglyceride levels, inhibits glucose-6-phosphatase and hepatic glucose, improves glucose tolerance[78,306,307]
39.
Cichorium intybus
Bark, leavesChlorogenic acid, chicoric acid, gallic acid, kaempferol, quercetin, β-sitosterolLowers blood glucose levels, stimulates insulin release, improves insulin sensitivity, inhibits α-amylase, α-glucosidase, glucose-6-phosphatase activity, prevents oxidative stress[22,78,132,301,308]
40.
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
BarkCinnamaldehyde, eugenolDecreases blood glucose levels, reduces insulin resistance, inhibits α-glucosidase activity and formation of advanced glycated end products, inhibits sugar binding to albumin[134,309,310]
41.
Citrus limon
FruitDiosmin, hesperetinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, enhances glucose utilization, stimulates β-endorphine secretion from adrenal glands, inhibits gluconeogenesis[16,311,312]
42.
Citrus x aurantium
FruitNaringin, naringenin, epigallocatechin-3-gallateDecreases blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, increases GLUT4 translocation in skeletal muscles, decreases gluconeogenesis[16,289,290,313]
43.
Cola nitida
SeedsD-catechin, L-epicatechin, naringenin, apigeninLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin sensitivity, decreases oxidative stress, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[16,244,246]
44.
Coptis chinensis
RhizomeBerberine, jatrorrhizineLowers blood glucose levels, enhances aerobic glycolysis, inhibits gluconeogenesis, increases insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity[33,282,314]
45.
Cornus officinalis
Fruit, seedsGymnemagenin, gymnemic acid, ursolic acidLowers fasting blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose uptake and tolerance, inhibits protein glycation[143,279,315,316]
46.
Curcuma longa
RhizomeCurcumin, turmerinDecreases fasting blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, triglyceride, and cholesterol levels, inhibits α-amylase, α-glucosidase activity, and diabetic inflammatory processes [78,317,318]
47.
Cudrania cochinchinensis
Bark, rootsKaempferol, vanillin, β-sitosterolLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels, decreases serum advanced glycation end products, improves glucose uptake, reduces insulin resistance[250,256,319,320]
48.
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Fruit Quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acidLowers plasma glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, decreases triglyceride levels[16,256,262,304]
49.
Dalbergia sissoo
Bark Biochanin A, tectorigenin, rhamnoglucoside, dalbergin, dalbergichromeneLowers blood glucose levels, improves insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, reduces insulin resistance[321,322,323]
50.
Eriobotrya japonica
Leaves, seedsCinchonain-Ib, timosaponin, chlorogenic acid, epicatechinLowers blood glucose, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels, enhances insulin secretion and sensitivity, improves glucose tolerance[246,279,301,324,325]
51.
Eucalyptus citriodora
LeavesBetulinic acid, gallic acid, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, rhodomyrtosone ELowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion and sensitivity, improves glucose tolerance and antioxidant activity, decreases triglyceride levels, [155,295,304,326]
52.
Eucalyptus globulus
LeavesEucalyptol, rutin, sesquiterpeneLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, reduces oxidative stress[157,249,327]
53.
Euclea undulata
RootbarkBotulin, lupeol, epicatechinDecreases serum glucose, increases insulin levels, improves insulin sensitivity, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels [78,246,257]
54.
Eugenia jambolana
SeedsEllagic acid, gallic acid, chlorogenic acidLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin sensitivity, improves β-cell function, improves glucose tolerance, inhibits α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and glucose-6-phosphatase activity[11,272,301,304]
55.
Euphorbia hirta
LeavesQuercetin, kaempferol, gallic acidLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, decreases triglyceride levels, enhances glucose uptake[162,256,262,304]
56.
Ficus benghalensis
Bark, leavesRutin, gallic acid, leucopelargonidin-3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, α-amyrin acetateDecreases blood glucose levels, improve glucose tolerance and β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, [249,328,329,330]
57.
Garcinia kola
SeedsKolaviron, ascorbic acidDecreases blood glucose level, stimulates insulin secretion, improves glucose utilization, inhibits glucose-6-phosphatase, exhibits free radical scavenging activity[16,331,332]
58.
Glycine max
SeedsKaempferol, soyasaponin, genistein, β-sitosterolLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin levels in blood, decreases insulin resistance, improves glucose uptake, inhibits glucose absorption[16,250,256]
59.
Glycyrrhiza glabra
RootsGlycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, isoliquiritinLowers postprandial rise in blood glucose levels, decreases glycosylated hemoglobin levels[333,334,335]
60.
Gymnema sylvestre
LeavesGymnemoside A,B,C,D,E,F, quercitol, lupeol, gymnemic acidLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, inhibits glucose absorption in the small intestine[149,257,315,336]
61.
Harungana madagascariensis
LeavesHarunganin, lupeol, betulinic acid, quercetin, β-sitosterolLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, decreases insulin resistance, prevents diabetic nephropathy[16,250,257,262,337,338]
62.
Helicteres isora
Roots Gallic acid, vanillin, p-coumaric acidLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels in blood, decreases triglyceride levels, reduces serum advanced glycation end products concentration, improves glucose tolerance[175,304,319,339]
63.
Heritiera fomes
Bark Stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, epicatechin, procyanidins, proanthocyanidins, quercitrinDecreases blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin levels, reduces insulin resistance, improves glucose uptake[26,176,250,340]
64.
Hibiscus esculentus
Roots, seedsIsoquercitrin, quercetin-3-O-gentiobiosideDecreases serum glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance[16,341]
65.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
LeavesQuercetin, cyanidin, thiamine, ascorbic acid, niacinDecreases blood glucose concentration, increases insulin synthesis and secretion, reduces oxidative stress, improves endothelial functions, and reduces complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus[179,262,342,343]
66.
Jatropha curcas
Leaves Rhoifolin, isoorientin, isoquercitrinDecreases plasma glucose, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels, stimulates glucose uptake, inhibits DPP-IV activity[241,306]
67.
Lantana camara
LeavesLantanoside, ferulic acid, oleanolic acid, caffeic acidLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose utilization, reduces oxidative stress[255,297,344]
68.
Linum usitatissimum
Seeds Caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acidLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces diabetic oxidative stress, enhances antioxidant activity[297,339,344,345]
69.
Mangifera indica
Leaves, seedsMangiferin, gallic acid, kaempferol, curcuminLowers fasting blood glucose levels, improves glucose tolerance, increases insulin secretion, reduces triglyceride and cholesterol levels, inhibits oxidative stress and diabetic inflammatory processes[16,256,269,304,317]
70.
Momordica charantia
Leaves, seedsCharantin, vicine, momordicine II, oleanolic acidLowers blood glucose levels, stimulates insulin release, inhibits glucose-6-phosphatase and glucose transport in intestines[22,134,255,336]
71.
Moringa oleifera
LeavesQuercetin, kaempferol, vanillin, chlorogenic acidLowers plasma glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, decreases the concentration of serum advanced glycation end products[16,22,189,256,319]
72.
Murraya koenigii
LeavesMahanimbine, isomahanine, ascorbic acid, kaempferol, quercetinLowers blood glucose levels, reduces triglyceride levels, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance[78,191,346]
73.
Musa sapientum
Flowers Rutin, delphinidin, syringinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces reactive oxygen species generation, prevents high glucose-induced cell proliferation [16,249,347]
74.
Nigella sativa
Seeds Thymoquinone, thymol, α-pinene, oleic acid, linoleic acid Lowers blood glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels, promotes insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, decreases oxidative stress[291,348,349,350]
75.
Ocimum basicllicum
LeavesLinalool, linolen, eugenol, geraniolLowers blood glucose levels, improves glucose uptake, inhibits advanced glycation end products generation and α-glucosidase activity[196,197,310,351]
76.
Ocimum sanctum
Leaves Eugenol, carvacrol, β-sitosterol, linaloolLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, decreases carbohydrate digestion and absorption, inhibits α-glucosidase activity, reduces insulin resistance[149,248,250,310]
77.
Olea europaea
LeavesOleuropein, oleanolic acid, luteolinMaintains blood glucose levels, promotes insulin secretion, improves insulin sensitivity, reduces oxidative stress, inhibits gluconeogenesis[16,242,255,352]
78.
Panax ginseng
RootsGinsenoside Rb2, Rg2Regenerates pancreatic beta cells, increases glucose uptake, reduces insulin resistance, and improves insulin sensitivity[248,279,353]
79.
Panda oleosa
Stem barkGinsenoside Rb2, protapananadiol/triolIncreases glucose uptake, reduces insulin resistance, and improves insulin sensitivity [204,353]
80.
Phaseolus vulgaris
SeedsHydroxycinnamic acid, rutin, quercetin, orientin, petunidin, catechinLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, reduces oxidative stress[16,149,244,249,262]
81.
Phyllanthus amarus
LeavesOleanolic acid, ursolic acidLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, inhibits oxidative stress-induced hepatic insulin resistance, inhibits gluconeogenesis[16,255,316]
82.
Plantago ovata
HuskKaempferol, catechin, myricetin, pinocembrinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity[208,244,256,354]
83.
Pterocarpus marsupium
Bark Epicatechin, marsupin, carsupin, marsupolLowers blood glucose levels, improves insulin sensitivity, enhances insulin release, improves glucose uptake [149,246]
84.
Punica granatum
FlowersGallic acid, rutin, nictoflorinLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function, increases insulin secretion, improves glucose tolerance, decreases triglyceride levels[16,249,304]
85.
Rehmannia glutinosa
RootsCatalpol, rehmanniosideLowers blood glucose levels, prevents diabetic complications, promotes glucose utilization and glycogen synthesis, reduces oxidative stress[214,279]
86.
Santalum album
Bark Spirosantalol, α-santalene, α-santalol, β-santalol, α-bergamotolLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, decreases total cholesterol and triglyceride levels[355]
87.
Selaginella bryopteris
Leaves Gallic acid, rutinDecreases plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, improves glucose tolerance, decreases triglyceride levels, inhibits inflammatory cytokines[249,304,356]
88.
Sesamum indicum
SeedsPinoresinol, sesamin, sesaminolLowers fasting blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, inhibits α-glucosidase activity[16,357,358]
89.
Solanum nigrum
LeavesGallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, rutin, naringeninLowers blood glucose levels, improves β-cell function and glucose tolerance, increases insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity [220,244,246,249,304,313]
90.
Spirulina platensis
Whole plantp-coumaric acid, catechin, β-caroteneLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels, reduces insulin resistance, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, reduces oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory biomarkers[222,244,300,339]
91.
Swertia chirayita
Bark, leavesSwerchirin, mangiferin, swertiamarin, amarogentinLowers blood glucose levels, promotes insulin release, inhibits glucosidase and glucuronidase activity[30,268,269,336]
92.
Tamarindus indica
Seeds Apigenin, naringenin, catechin, epictaechin, taxifolinLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin secretion, inhibits α-amylase and α-glucosidase activity, improves glucose tolerance, increases insulin sensitivity[244,246,313,359]
93.
Terminalia arjuna
Bark Arjungenin, arjunolone, ellagic acid, derivatives of arjunic acidLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin sensitivity, decreases free radical damage[29,360]
94.
Terminalia chebula
FruitChebulagic acid, gallic acid, ellagic acid, tannic acidLowers blood glucose levels, improve glucose tolerance and lipid metabolism, stimulates glucose transport, decreases triglyceride levels[245,304,360,361,362]
95.
Tinospora cordifolia
Leaves, roots, stemTinosporaside, berberine, syringinLowers plasma glucose levels, stimulates insulin synthesis and secretion, decreases triglyceride levels, improves insulin sensitivity, inhibits gluconeogenesis[149,282,363]
96.
Trigonella foenum-graecum
SeedsGalactomannan, diosgenin, coumarinDecreases blood glucose levels, stimulates insulin release, inhibits α-glucosidase and aldose reductase activity, increases insulin sensitivity[16,302,364,365]
97.
Urtica dioica
LeavesQuercetin, quercitrin, rutinLowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, improves antioxidant activity[16,249,262,295]
98.
Vernonia amygdalina
LeavesSobrerol, vernoamyoside E, luteolin, vitamin ELowers blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels, increases insulin secretion, enhances insulin sensitivity, reduces oxidative stress [16,235,242,366,367]
99.
Withania coagulans
Fruit Withanolides, withacoagulin, withanosides, withaferin ALowers blood glucose levels, exhibits free radical scavenging activity, inhibits DPP-IV activity[368,369]
100.
Zingiber officinale
RhizomeGingerol, 6-paradol, 6-shogaol, campheneLowers blood glucose levels, increases insulin levels, improves glucose tolerance and utilization, decreases cholesterol levels[16,253,254,293]
Table
Table 3. Antidiabetic phytoconstituents of medicinal plants and their chemical structures.
Table 3. Antidiabetic phytoconstituents of medicinal plants and their chemical structures.
Medicinal PlantsPhytoconstituents Chemical Structure
  • Abrus precatorius
Lupenone Molecules 27 04278 i001
2.
Acacia arabica
Quercetin Molecules 27 04278 i002
3.
Acacia catechu
Gallocatechin Molecules 27 04278 i003
4.
Aegle marmelos
Marmelosin Molecules 27 04278 i004
5.
Aframomum melegueta
6-paradol Molecules 27 04278 i005
6.
Ageratum conyzoides
Kaempferol Molecules 27 04278 i006
7.
Albizia lebbeck
Friedelin Molecules 27 04278 i007
8.
Albizia adianthifolia
Viridiflorol Molecules 27 04278 i008
9.
Allium cepa
Alliin Molecules 27 04278 i009
10.
Allium sativum
Allicin Molecules 27 04278 i010
11.
Aloe vera
Aloin Molecules 27 04278 i011
12.
Anacradium occidentale
Anacardic acid Molecules 27 04278 i012
13.
Anemarrhena asphodeloides
Sarsasapogenin Molecules 27 04278 i013
14.
Annona salzmannii
β-caryophyllene Molecules 27 04278 i014
15.
Annona squamosa
Rutin Molecules 27 04278 i015
16.
Anogeissus latifolia
β-sitosterol Molecules 27 04278 i016
17.
Arachis hypogaea
Resveratrol Molecules 27 04278 i017
18.
Artemisia absinthium
Azulene Molecules 27 04278 i018
19.
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Chrysin Molecules 27 04278 i019
20.
Asparagus racemosus
Asparagine Molecules 27 04278 i020
21.
Atractylodes japonica
Atractylenolide III Molecules 27 04278 i021
22.
Azadirachta indica
Nimbin Molecules 27 04278 i022
23.
Balanites aegyptiaca
Diosgenin Molecules 27 04278 i023
24.
Berberis vulgaris
Berberine Molecules 27 04278 i024
25.
Bidens pilosa
Luteolin Molecules 27 04278 i025
26.
Bougainvillea spectabilis
Pinitol Molecules 27 04278 i026
27.
Brassica juncea
Cinnamic acid Molecules 27 04278 i027
28.
Bridelia ferruginea
Epigallocatechin gallate Molecules 27 04278 i028
29.
Bunium persicum
Palmitic acid Molecules 27 04278 i029
30.
Caesalpinia decapetala
Astragalin Molecules 27 04278 i030
31.
Calendula officinalis
Esculetin Molecules 27 04278 i031
32.
Camellia sinensis
Quercitrin Molecules 27 04278 i032
33.
Capsicum frutescens
Capsaicin Molecules 27 04278 i033
34.
Carica papaya
Coumarin Molecules 27 04278 i034
35.
Cassia alata
Emodin Molecules 27 04278 i035
36.
Cassia fistula
Lupeol Molecules 27 04278 i036
37.
Catharanthus roseus
Vindoline Molecules 27 04278 i037
38.
Cecropia obtusifolia
Isoorientin Molecules 27 04278 i038
39.
Cichorium intybus
Chlorogenic acid Molecules 27 04278 i039
40.
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Cinnamaldehyde Molecules 27 04278 i040
41.
Citrus limon
Hesperetin Molecules 27 04278 i041
42.
Citrus x aurantium
Naringin Molecules 27 04278 i042
43.
Cola nitida
Apigenin Molecules 27 04278 i043
44.
Coptis chinensis
Jatrorrhizine Molecules 27 04278 i044
45.
Cornus officinalis
Gymnemic acid Molecules 27 04278 i045
46.
Curcuma longa
Curcumin Molecules 27 04278 i046
47.
Cudrania cochinchinensis
Vanillin Molecules 27 04278 i047
48.
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Quercetin Molecules 27 04278 i048
49.
Dalbergia sissoo
Biochanin A Molecules 27 04278 i049
50.
Eriobotrya japonica
Cinchonain ib Molecules 27 04278 i050
51.
Eucalyptus citriodora
Rhodomyrtosone E Molecules 27 04278 i051
52.
Eucalyptus globulus
Eucalyptol Molecules 27 04278 i052
53.
Euclea undulata
Epicatechin Molecules 27 04278 i053
54.
Eugenia jambolana
Ellagic acid Molecules 27 04278 i054
55.
Euphorbia hirta
Gallic acid Molecules 27 04278 i055
56.
Ficus benghalensis
α-amyrin acetate Molecules 27 04278 i056
57.
Garcinia kola
Kolaviron Molecules 27 04278 i057
58.
Glycine max
Genistein Molecules 27 04278 i058
59.
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Glycyrrhizin Molecules 27 04278 i059
60.
Gymnema sylvestre
Gymnemic acid Molecules 27 04278 i060
61.
Harungana madagascariensis
Harunganin Molecules 27 04278 i061
62.
Helicteres isora
p-coumaric acid Molecules 27 04278 i062
63.
Heritiera fomes
Stigmasterol Molecules 27 04278 i063
64.
Hibiscus esculentus
Quercetin-3-O-gentiobioside Molecules 27 04278 i064
65.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Ascorbic acid Molecules 27 04278 i065
66.
Jatropha curcas
Isoorientin Molecules 27 04278 i066
67.
Lantana camara
Caffeic acid Molecules 27 04278 i067
68.
Linum usitatissimum
Ferulic acid Molecules 27 04278 i068
69.
Mangifera indica
Mangiferin Molecules 27 04278 i069
70.
Momordica charantia
Vicine Molecules 27 04278 i070
71.
Moringa oleifera
Kaempferol Molecules 27 04278 i071
72.
Murraya koenigii
Mahanimbine Molecules 27 04278 i072
73.
Musa sapientum
Delphinidin Molecules 27 04278 i073
74.
Nigella sativa
Thymoquinone Molecules 27 04278 i074
75.
Ocimum basicllicum
Linalool Molecules 27 04278 i075
76.
Ocimum sanctum
Eugenol Molecules 27 04278 i076
77.
Olea europaea
Oleanolic acid Molecules 27 04278 i077
78.
Panax ginseng
Ginsenoside Rg2 Molecules 27 04278 i078
79.
Panda oleosa
Ginsenoside Rb2 Molecules 27 04278 i079
80.
Phaseolus vulgaris
Orientin Molecules 27 04278 i080
81.
Phyllanthus amarus
Ursolic acid Molecules 27 04278 i081
82.
Plantago ovata
Myricetin Molecules 27 04278 i082
83.
Pterocarpus marsupium
Marsupin Molecules 27 04278 i083
84.
Punica granatum
Nictoflorin Molecules 27 04278 i084
85.
Rehmannia glutinosa
Catalpol Molecules 27 04278 i085
86.
Santalum album
β-santalol Molecules 27 04278 i086
87.
Selaginella bryopteris
Gallic acid Molecules 27 04278 i087
88.
Sesamum indicum
Pinoresinol Molecules 27 04278 i088
89.
Solanum nigrum
Naringenin Molecules 27 04278 i089
90.
Spirulina platensis
β-carotene Molecules 27 04278 i090
91.
Swertia chirayita
Swerchirin Molecules 27 04278 i091
92.
Tamarindus indica
Taxifolin Molecules 27 04278 i092
93.
Terminalia arjuna
Arjungenin Molecules 27 04278 i093
94.
Terminalia chebula
Tannic acid Molecules 27 04278 i094
95.
Tinospora cordifolia
Syringin Molecules 27 04278 i095
96.
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Galactomannan Molecules 27 04278 i096
97.
Urtica dioica
Quercitrin Molecules 27 04278 i097
98.
Vernonia amygdalina
Sobrerol Molecules 27 04278 i098
99.
Withania coagulans
Withaferin A Molecules 27 04278 i099
100.
Zingiber officinale
Gingerol Molecules 27 04278 i100
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Ansari, P.; Akther, S.; Hannan, J.M.A.; Seidel, V.; Nujat, N.J.; Abdel-Wahab, Y.H.A. Pharmacologically Active Phytomolecules Isolated from Traditional Antidiabetic Plants and Their Therapeutic Role for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus. Molecules 2022, 27, 4278. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134278

AMA Style

Ansari P, Akther S, Hannan JMA, Seidel V, Nujat NJ, Abdel-Wahab YHA. Pharmacologically Active Phytomolecules Isolated from Traditional Antidiabetic Plants and Their Therapeutic Role for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus. Molecules. 2022; 27(13):4278. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134278

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ansari, Prawej, Samia Akther, J. M. A. Hannan, Veronique Seidel, Nusrat Jahan Nujat, and Yasser H. A. Abdel-Wahab. 2022. "Pharmacologically Active Phytomolecules Isolated from Traditional Antidiabetic Plants and Their Therapeutic Role for the Management of Diabetes Mellitus" Molecules 27, no. 13: 4278. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134278

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