Sustainable Building Structures

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Applied Sciences applsci	2.7	4.5	2011	16.9 Days	CHF 2400
Buildings buildings	3.8	3.1	2011	14.6 Days	CHF 2600
Eng eng	-	-	2020	18.7 Days	CHF 1200
CivilEng civileng	-	2.0	2020	37.7 Days	CHF 1200
Architecture architecture	-	-	2021	26.4 Days	CHF 1000

15 pages, 6387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protection of Structural Layers of Transitions Zones on Railways against Freezing, Using Materials with a Low Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity

by Stanislav Hodas, Alzbeta Pultznerova and Jana Izvoltova

Buildings 2022, 12(6), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12060821 - 13 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2388

Abstract

Structural elements of railway buildings in transition zones are important parts of railway lines, where the structure of their materials is fundamentally changing. In the presented research results, these are changes in the railway body between a railway with a classic trackbed and [...] Read more.

Structural elements of railway buildings in transition zones are important parts of railway lines, where the structure of their materials is fundamentally changing. In the presented research results, these are changes in the railway body between a railway with a classic trackbed and a railway with a fixed track. The used materials of the transition zone and associated railway sections must be resistant to the effects of frost in winter. The experiments show the detected freezing depths using a zero isotherm at 0 °C. The temperature period before the onset of frost in winter is also an important factor. Numerical models of transition zones were loaded by freezing conditions. Based on the results of the experiments, frost protection measures have been proposed. To improve the temperature transition through the layers, materials with a low coefficient of thermal conductivity of transition zones have been proposed in the experimental models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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15 pages, 4220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction Effect of Room Size and Opening on Trombe Wall Performance in Sichuan–Tibet Alpine Valley Areas

by Lili Zhang, Jingyue Cheng, Fei Liu, Haolin Li, Zhuojun Dong, Xuemei Zhang, Kai Wang, Lei Tian, Haoru Liu, Jiangjun Wan and Congshan Tian

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(10), 5260; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12105260 - 23 May 2022

Viewed by 1403

Abstract

The Trombe wall (T-wall) system is one of the most effective systems for passive solar energy utilization technology, which is of great significance for the alleviation of the energy crisis and the protection of the environment. Taking as an example Tibetan dwellings in [...] Read more.

The Trombe wall (T-wall) system is one of the most effective systems for passive solar energy utilization technology, which is of great significance for the alleviation of the energy crisis and the protection of the environment. Taking as an example Tibetan dwellings in the Sichuan–Tibet alpine valley which have installed T-walls for heating, the effects of the length of the room (Factor A), the width of the room (Factor B), the width of the opening on the north wall of the room (Factor C), and the distance from the lower edge of the opening to the floor (Factor D) on the indoor air temperature and room energy consumption are studied by orthogonal experiment and numerical simulation. Results show that the four factors all have a significant effect on the two analysis indicators. The rankings of the factors are consistent for their impact on the two analysis indicators, as, in both cases, Factor A > Factor B > Factor C > Factor D. Therefore, the influence of room configuration cannot be ignored in the optimization of T-wall design. Additionally, the optimal parameter combination for the highest indoor temperature and low energy consumption in winter is also proposed. This research can further improve the study of T-walls, and provide a reference for the thermal environment design of buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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29 pages, 5234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of Steel-Bolt-Connected Industrialized Building System Frame Subjected to Hydrodynamic Force

by Abubakar Sharif Auwalu, Norhazilan Md Noor, Mohamad Shazwan Ahmad Shah, Sarehati Umar, Mugahed Amran, Musa Adamu, Nikolai Ivanovich Vatin and Roman Fediuk

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(10), 5093; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12105093 - 18 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1629

Abstract

People need durable shelters for living safely due to devastation caused by flooding in some areas, and it is not easy to mitigate the frequency and intensity of the flooding. Therefore, in this research, an industrialized building system (IBS) has been proposed as [...] Read more.

People need durable shelters for living safely due to devastation caused by flooding in some areas, and it is not easy to mitigate the frequency and intensity of the flooding. Therefore, in this research, an industrialized building system (IBS) has been proposed as one of the best solutions. However, most of the existing IBSs were not designed and tested for resisting a sudden horizontal impact. Furthermore, the joints of some IBSs would likely be vulnerable to failure when subjected to a horizontal impact. There is a need to develop a bolt-connected IBS that is able to withstand a horizontal impact load. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the performance of steel-bolt-connected IBS frames subjected to the sudden impact of hydrodynamic force. Autodesk computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation was used for optimizing the laboratory experiment. A 1:5-scale IBS frame was designed and tested for the dam-break test using 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m reservoir water levels. The results showed that the bolt connections were very effective and robust in the IBS frame. They also restricted damages from spreading to other structural components due to energy dissipation. The main findings of this study are crucial to improving the current IBS method of construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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23 pages, 8284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Characterization of Raw Earth Properties for Modeling Their Hygrothermal Behavior

by Yassine Elias Belarbi, Mohamed Sawadogo, Philippe Poullain, Nabil Issaadi, Ameur El Amine Hamami, Stéphanie Bonnet and Rafik Belarbi

Buildings 2022, 12(5), 648; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050648 - 12 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2281

Abstract

Raw earth is one of the oldest building materials of mankind. Almost a third of the world’s population is living in an earth-based house. However, their use remains low compared to conventional materials such as concrete, steel, and wood. Although these geosourced materials [...] Read more.

Raw earth is one of the oldest building materials of mankind. Almost a third of the world’s population is living in an earth-based house. However, their use remains low compared to conventional materials such as concrete, steel, and wood. Although these geosourced materials are abundant, recyclable, and have a low environmental footprint, their use is very limited in the construction sector. This can be explained by the lack of data regarding their hygrothermal behavior. In this context, the present work aims to highlight the properties of cob construction material with straw addition. An experimental characterization of hygrothermal and microstructural properties has been carried out. Thermal conductivity, specific heat, sorption isotherms, moisture storage capacity, moisture buffer value (MBV), and water vapor permeability are obtained experimentally. Then, the collected data are used as input parameters of a numerical prediction model to numerically assess the thermal and hygric behavior. Cob is then compared to other more commonly used materials to highlight the benefits of its use within the context of the energetic and environmental transition. Our results will allow better understanding of the behavior of the new geosourced material thanks to experimental and numerical investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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10 pages, 3583 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Life Cycle Analysis of Timber, Steel and Reinforced Concrete Portal Frames: A Theoretical Study on a Norwegian Industrial Building

by Osama Abdelfattah Hegeir, Tore Kvande, Haris Stamatopoulos and Rolf André Bohne

Buildings 2022, 12(5), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050573 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6730

Abstract

The construction industry is a big contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, which has a negative environmental impact. Several studies have highlighted the possibility of using timber to reduce the environmental impact of construction. Most of these studies have focused on residential buildings, but [...] Read more.

The construction industry is a big contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, which has a negative environmental impact. Several studies have highlighted the possibility of using timber to reduce the environmental impact of construction. Most of these studies have focused on residential buildings, but little attention has been devoted to industrial buildings. In this paper, an attempt is made to compare the environmental impact of using timber, steel, and reinforced concrete in industrial buildings using life cycle assessment. The system boundary was set to cradle-to-gate with transportation to construction site due to the limitation of data, and only the quantities of the main structural system are considered. Portal frames with variable spans were designed using the three materials to meet similar load carrying capacity. Reinforced concrete was used in the foundation of all frames. The results of the comparative study show that timber has, by a good margin, better environmental impact than reinforced concrete and steel, due to the carbon stored in the wood. The results also show that reinforced concrete and steel alternatives have similar environmental impacts. The findings of this study agree with the findings of other studies on residential buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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21 pages, 2616 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of a Life Cycle Cost Deep Learning Prediction Model Based on Building Structure Alternatives for Industrial Buildings

by Ahmed Meshref, Karim El-Dash, Mohamed Basiouny and Omia El-Hadidi

Buildings 2022, 12(5), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050502 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2586

Abstract

Undoubtedly, most industrial buildings have a huge Life Cycle Cost (LCC) throughout their lifespan, and most of these costs occur in structural operation and maintenance costs, environmental impact costs, etc. Hence, it is necessary to think about a fast way to determine the [...] Read more.

Undoubtedly, most industrial buildings have a huge Life Cycle Cost (LCC) throughout their lifespan, and most of these costs occur in structural operation and maintenance costs, environmental impact costs, etc. Hence, it is necessary to think about a fast way to determine the LCC values. Therefore, this article presents an LCC deep learning prediction model to assess structural and envelope-type alternatives for industrial building, and to make a decision for the most suitable structure. The input and output criteria of the prediction model were collected from previous studies. The deep learning network model was developed using a Deep Belief Network (DBN) with Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM) hidden layers. Seven investigation cases were studied to validate the prediction model of a 312-item dataset over a period of 30 years, after the training phase of the network to take the suitable hidden layers of the RBM and hidden neurons in each hidden layer that achieved the minimal errors of the model. Another case was studied in the model to compare design structure alternatives, consisting of three main structure frames—a reinforced concrete frame, a precast/pre-stressed concrete frame, and a steel frame—over their life cycle, and make a decision. Precast/pre-stressed concrete frames were the best decision until the end of the life cycle cost, as it is possible to reuse the removed sections in a new industrial building. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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24 pages, 109839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Plane Seismic Behavior of Brick Masonry Walls Reinforced with Twisted Steel Bars and Conventional Steel Bars

by Armando Demaj, António Sousa Gago, Ana Isabel Marques and João Gomes Ferreira

Buildings 2022, 12(4), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12040421 - 31 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2860

Abstract

The in-plane seismic performance of old unreinforced brick masonry walls strengthened with stainless-steel twisted bars and conventional steel bars (usually used in concrete reinforcing) was investigated in the present study. For this purpose, a total of seventeen masonry wallettes reproducing masonry walls of [...] Read more.

The in-plane seismic performance of old unreinforced brick masonry walls strengthened with stainless-steel twisted bars and conventional steel bars (usually used in concrete reinforcing) was investigated in the present study. For this purpose, a total of seventeen masonry wallettes reproducing masonry walls of traditional Lisbon buildings from the 1930s–1950s (known as “placa” buildings) were constructed. The specimens were assembled using original bricks from demolished old buildings and a sand-cement bedding mortar with the same proportions as reported in building design documents of the time. Out of the fourteen wallettes tested in diagonal compression, three were unreinforced, and eleven were strengthened in different layouts. Additionally, axial compression tests were performed on the other three unreinforced masonry wallettes. The tested specimens were reproduced with numerical models calibrated based on the experimental results. The experimental and numerical results of the reinforced specimens were compared to the unreinforced specimens to draw conclusions on the effectiveness of the strengthening solutions when applied to masonry walls of the typology under study. The most important result of the strengthening was an important increase in the ductility of the specimens that were originally brittle. In addition, in some cases a slight increase of shear strength was also observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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21 pages, 2764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing the Climate Change Potential of Residential Steel Buildings in New Zealand and Their Alignment in Meeting the 2050 Paris Agreement Targets

by Hannah Wu, Hao Liang, Krishanu Roy, Ethan Harrison, Zhiyuan Fang, Karnika De Silva, Nick Collins and James Boon Piang Lim

Buildings 2022, 12(3), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12030290 - 02 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3881

Abstract

This research undertakes a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) to determine the climate change potential of a typical newly built steel detached dwelling in Palmerston North, New Zealand (NZ) and assesses its results concerning the 2 °C and 1.5 °C 2050 Paris Agreement targets. [...] Read more.

This research undertakes a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) to determine the climate change potential of a typical newly built steel detached dwelling in Palmerston North, New Zealand (NZ) and assesses its results concerning the 2 °C and 1.5 °C 2050 Paris Agreement targets. The proposed, upcoming policy and actions of the NZ government relating to its residential building and construction sector, which are set with an overarching aim to allow NZ to progress towards meeting the 2050 Paris Agreement targets, are also discussed in this paper. The results of the LCA demonstrate that the projected stock of steel-framed detached houses significantly exceeds the calculated climate budget and eventual 2050 Paris Agreement targets. For both the 2 °C and 1.5 °C scenarios, the magnitude of exceedance of the climate budget is 5.2 and 7.3 times more than the acceptable limit, correspondingly. These findings suggest that the sector will need to undergo a significant transition in order to fulfil the 2050 Paris Agreement targets. In the meanwhile, the sector’s upcoming policies and regulations must be achievable while progressing toward achieving net-zero carbon emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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28 pages, 30243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation and Numerical Simulation of C-Shape Thin-Walled Steel Profile Joints

by George Taranu and Ionut-Ovidiu Toma

Buildings 2021, 11(12), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11120636 - 10 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2868

Abstract

The versatility of steel, its high resistance in relation to its low mass, as well as the easily accessible technology in the context of using recyclable materials and the low negative impact on the environment represent important arguments in using thin-walled steel profiles [...] Read more.

The versatility of steel, its high resistance in relation to its low mass, as well as the easily accessible technology in the context of using recyclable materials and the low negative impact on the environment represent important arguments in using thin-walled steel profiles to make structures for buildings with a low height regime. This paper presents the results of an experimental program that investigated the behavior of three types of joints in a T-shape form made of thin-walled steel profiles to make shear wall panels or truss beam floors. Due to the small dimensions of the C-profiles of 89 × 41 × 12 × 1 mm, and of the technology of their joining, manufacturers prefer the hinged connections of elements with self-drilling screws. The purpose of the research presented in this paper is to assess the maximum capacity of the joints, the elastic and post-elastic behavior until failure, and also the mechanisms failure. The types of joints analyzed are commonly used in the production of structural systems for houses. The experimental program, which consisted of testing 5 specimens for each type of joint in tension (shear on screws), showed different behavior in terms of load-displacement. The experimental, tested models were analyzed by finite element simulations in an ANSYS nonlinear static structure with 3D solid models. The materials were defined by a bilinear true stress–strain curve obtained after some experimental tensile tests of the steel. The results of the experimental tests showed that the main failure mechanism is a yielding of the holes where the screws were mounted and a shearing of the profile walls. Adding an additional screw on each side increases the capacity of the joints, but not until a yield loss is obtained. In conclusion, it is shown that the solution is suitable for a low level of loading in a static manner; however, additional studies are necessary in order to develop and verify other solutions, thus improving the strength of the connection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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17 pages, 3218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Thermal Method Applied to the In Situ Characterization of Insulating Materials in a Wall

by Elorn Biteau, Didier Defer, Franck Brachelet and Laurent Zalewski

Buildings 2021, 11(12), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11120578 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1600

Abstract

An in situ estimation of the thermal properties of bio-sourced building wall insulation components is of critical importance in improving both the energy efficiency of buildings and the development of construction materials with a smaller environmental footprint. Depending on weather conditions, passive methods [...] Read more.

An in situ estimation of the thermal properties of bio-sourced building wall insulation components is of critical importance in improving both the energy efficiency of buildings and the development of construction materials with a smaller environmental footprint. Depending on weather conditions, passive methods are not always feasible; they require time to conduct lengthy testing and may lead to significant uncertainties. This article presents an active method based on power dissipation via flat electrical resistance. The method can be implemented regardless of outdoor weather conditions and is suitable for walls with high overall thermal resistance for which the small average component of the through flow is difficult to estimate. Measurements are conducted of both wall input flows and temperatures. An inverse method, derived from a finite difference model of 1D transfers along with a multi-objective approach, enables the characteristics of a two-material assembly to be identified. A multi-objective method was chosen to solve the problems of high correlation between the thermal parameters of the model. However, the method requires the use of two temperature sensors integrated inside the wall. Following a laboratory validation phase on a PVC/plasterboard assembly, the method is implemented on an actual wall. A coating/hemp concrete assembly is also characterized as part of this work program. The thermal conductivity of the hemp concrete block was estimated at 0.12 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ and is consistent with values found in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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15 pages, 4817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shear Behavior of Reinforced Post-Filling Coarse Aggregate Concrete Beams Produced by Creative Construction Process

by Jinqing Jia, Qi Cao, Lihua Zhang, Yulong Hu and Zihan Meng

Buildings 2021, 11(12), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11120576 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1497

Abstract

Different from the traditional concrete mixing procedure, the innovative post-filling coarse aggregate concrete (PFCC) reduces the cost of pumping concrete by increasing the coarse aggregate content and reducing the usage of cement. Previous studies have shown that PFCC enhances the compressive strength, elastic [...] Read more.

Different from the traditional concrete mixing procedure, the innovative post-filling coarse aggregate concrete (PFCC) reduces the cost of pumping concrete by increasing the coarse aggregate content and reducing the usage of cement. Previous studies have shown that PFCC enhances the compressive strength, elastic modulus, and flexural strength of concrete. In this paper, the shear behavior of 13 post-filling coarse aggregate concrete beams and 3 control beams was tested to determine the relationships between the shear performance of the beam and the post-filling coarse aggregate ratio, concrete strength grade, shear span ratio and stirrup reinforcement ratio. The results showed that the ultimate shear capacity of beam specimen increases first and then decreases with the increase in post-filling coarse aggregate ratio, reaching the maximum at 15% post-filling ratio. The results also indicated that the ultimate shear capacity of the beam increases with the increase in concrete strength grade and stirrup ratio. However, experimental results exhibited that the ultimate shear capacity decreases as the shear span ratio increases. This study provides a reference for the application of post-filling coarse aggregate concrete in engineering practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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19 pages, 6819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Compressive Strength of Concrete on Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Near Surface Mounted Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer

by Ma’en Abdel-Jaber, Mu’tasim Abdel-Jaber, Hasan Katkhuda, Nasim Shatarat and Rola El-Nimri

Buildings 2021, 11(11), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11110563 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2804

Abstract

This paper investigates the effect of using near-surface mounted carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (NSM-CFRP) on the shear strengthening of rectangle beams with low strength concrete (f′c = 17 MPa), medium strength concrete (f′c = 32 MPa), and high strength concrete (f′c = 47 MPa). [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the effect of using near-surface mounted carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (NSM-CFRP) on the shear strengthening of rectangle beams with low strength concrete (f′c = 17 MPa), medium strength concrete (f′c = 32 MPa), and high strength concrete (f′c = 47 MPa). The experimental program was performed by installing NSM-CFRP strips vertically in three different configurations: aligned with the internal stirrups, one vertical NSM-CFRP strip between every two internal stirrups, and two vertical NSM-CFRP strips between every two internal stirrups. All tested beams were simply supported beams and tested under a three-point loading test. The experimental results were compared with the theoretical capacities that were calculated according to the ACI 440.2R-17 and finite element analysis (FEA) that was conducted using ABAQUS software to simulate the behavior of all beams. The experimental results indicated that using NSM-CFRP limited the failure mode of all beams to pure shear failure with no debonding or rapture of the carbon strips. Moreover, the use of NSM-CFRP proved its efficiency by increasing the shear capacity of all beams by a range of 4% to 66%, in which the best enhancement was recorded for the case of using two unaligned NSM-CFRP strips. In general, the experimental shear capacities increased with the increase in the compressive strength of all beams. On the other hand, the ACI 440.2R-17 was conservative in predicting the theoretical shear capacities, and the FEA results agreed well with the experimental results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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22 pages, 8677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of the Chimney Effect in Stack Ventilation

by Romana Antczak-Jarząbska, Krzysztof Pawłowski and Maciej Niedostatkiewicz

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 9185; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11199185 - 02 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2418

Abstract

The article is focused on the airflow in a ventilation system in a building. The work examines the methods which enhance the chimney effect. In this paper, three cases with different chimneys were analyzed for the full-scale experiment. These cases were characterized by [...] Read more.

The article is focused on the airflow in a ventilation system in a building. The work examines the methods which enhance the chimney effect. In this paper, three cases with different chimneys were analyzed for the full-scale experiment. These cases were characterized by different geometrical and material parameters, leading to differences in the intensity of the ventilation airflow. The common denominator of the cases was the room with the air inlet and outlet to the ventilation system. The differences between the experimental cases concerned the chimney canal itself, and more precisely its part protruding above the roof slope. The first experimental case concerned a ventilation canal made in a traditional way, from solid ceramic brick. The second experimental case concerned the part that led out above the roof slope with a transparent barrier, called a solar chimney. In the third experimental case, a rotary type of chimney cap was installed on the chimney to improve the efficiency of stack ventilation. All these cases were used to determine the performance of natural ventilation—Air Change per Hour (CH). Additionally, the paper presents a technical and economic comparison of the solutions used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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13 pages, 4918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Mechanical and Electrical Properties of the Composite Structure of PVC Membrane and Thin-Film Battery under Biaxial Tension

by Jingwei Ying, Junzhou Huang, Shengkun Qin and Yijie Huang

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(15), 6830; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11156830 - 25 Jul 2021

Viewed by 1593

Abstract

This paper aims to study the mechanical and electrical properties of the composite structure of PVC film and film cell under biaxial tension. The saddle PVC membrane structure with thin-film battery was obtained by biaxial tensile tests carried out on the composite structure [...] Read more.

This paper aims to study the mechanical and electrical properties of the composite structure of PVC film and film cell under biaxial tension. The saddle PVC membrane structure with thin-film battery was obtained by biaxial tensile tests carried out on the composite structure along the fiber direction and at an angle of 45 degrees to the fiber, respectively. The deformation of the film cell and PVC membrane materials was tested using digital image technology, and the voltage of the film cell was tested using a multimeter. The results showed that the tensile strain occurred in both membrane batteries and PVC membrane at different loading levels, and the former was always less than the latter. At a tensile load with the ultimate load ratio of 60%, it was only at the film cell’s outer edge that the stripping occurred. Under the illumination of a stable light source, the film cell voltage decreased gradually with the increasing tensile load. No more than 10% of the cell voltage drop occurred when the membrane material, the principal tensile strain of the cell, and the cell’s expansion area ratio were less than 3.1%, 2.8%, and 1.03, respectively. The experimental results show that the film cell can be applied to the saddle membrane structure by controlling the appropriate load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Building Structures)

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