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38 pages, 7266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Small-Scale Solar-Powered Desalination Plants: A Sustainable Alternative Water-Energy Nexus to Obtain Water for Chile’s Coastal Areas

by Lorena Cornejo-Ponce, Patricia Vilca-Salinas, María Janet Arenas-Herrera, Claudia Moraga-Contreras, Héctor Tapia-Caroca and Stavros Kukulis-Martínez

Energies 2022, 15(23), 9245; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239245 - 06 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3612

Abstract

The natural potential of Chile—solar energy and 8 km of coastline—make the implementation of small-scale reverse osmosis desalination plants (RODPs) in coastal areas energetically supported with photovoltaic systems (PVs) feasible. This work considers a survey of the plants in Chile. As a demonstration of a RODP, a technical/economic evaluation is carried out, analyzing four possible cases in which different energy configurations are proposed: electric grid, diesel generator, and photovoltaic systems, without or with batteries. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of these plants are presented. The results obtained indicate that there are 39 plants in operation, which produce an average permeate water flow of Qp 1715 m³d⁻¹. Solar Explorer, and Homer Pro software are used for a plant that generates 8 m³day⁻¹ of permeate water, resulting in the conclusion that Case 3 is the most economically viable, as it has a useful life of 20 years and will have an annual solar contribution of more than 65%. The levelized cost of water production is 0.56 USDm⁻³ (RODP/PV) and 0.02 USDkW⁻¹h⁻¹ was obtained for the LCOE. Finally, this case contributes to the mitigation of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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13 pages, 2504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation on EOR in Porous Media by Cyclic Water Injection with Vibration Frequency

by Hongen Yang, Junming Lao, Delin Tong and Hongqing Song

Water 2022, 14(23), 3961; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233961 - 05 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1500

Abstract

Water injection with an oscillatory pressure boundary is a promising technology, which can achieve a more economical and environment-friendly EOR (enhanced oil recovery). However, due to the unclear critical injection frequency, its oil production performance has been unstable and is far from reaching the optimal level. Here, a numerical model is established for oil recovery by the water injection with the oscillatory boundary condition to find out the critical frequency for the optimal EOR. The correlations between the water injection frequency and the EOR level at diverse oil–water surface tensions and oil viscosities are integrated into the model. Our numerical model reveals that an optimal EOR of roughly 10% is achieved at the critical water injection frequency compared with water injection without an oscillatory boundary. The EOR mechanism is revealed showing that upon water injection with the optimum frequency, the formation of the preferential pathways is inhibited and the pressure transmits to the wall sides to displace the oil. Moreover, it is indicated that the required critical frequency increases with higher surface tension and larger oil viscosity. In addition, the difference between the residual oil saturation at the optimal frequency increases with the increase in surface tension compared with water injection without an oscillatory boundary. Last but not least, it is elucidated that at a constant injection frequency, a higher EOR is achieved when the water–oil surface tension is lower but the oil viscosity is larger. Our work promises economic, eco-friendly and controllable enhanced oil recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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18 pages, 6479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigations and Prevention Strategies on the Fracturing Water Pollution Triggering Permeability and Production Decrease in Underground Gas Reservoirs

by Faqi He, Ruifei Wang and Kui Chen

Water 2022, 14(23), 3921; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233921 - 01 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1243

Abstract

The fracturing water injected into the underground gas reservoirs for development purposes has polluted the reservoirs, triggering a decrease in reservoir permeability and gas production. Here, we quantitatively investigate and provide preventions for the fracturing water pollution in the underground gas reservoir. We study the effects of fracturing water pollution on reservoir permeability with core experiments. According to the core experiments, we constructed an area-divided two-phase porous flow model to study the production of the underground gas reservoir considering fracturing water pollution. The simulation results are in good agreement with the field development data. It reveals that in the early, mid-term and late development, respectively, the fracturing water pollution accounts for 88%, 80% and 45% of the decline in permeability and production of the underground gas reservoir. In terms of the prevention of fracturing water pollution, reservoirs with an initial permeability over 0.20 mD are preferably produced by natural energy rather than fracturing. Once using the fracturing water, we suggest applying the propping agent with a large particle radius to reduce the pollution from the solid solute and adding the clay stabilizer and the surfactant to the fracturing water to reduce the pollution from the water solvent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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12 pages, 4413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship between Water Use and Energy Generation from Different Power Generation Types in a Megacity Facing Water Shortages: A Case Study in Shenzhen

by Lin-Jun Li, Guo-Yu Qiu and Chun-Hua Yan

Water 2022, 14(20), 3226; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14203226 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3459

Abstract

Using less water to generate more power is a goal of the worldwide power industry, but this is difficult to achieve because of the lack of long-term, operational data-based studies. This challenge is especially severe for megacities facing water shortages. This study used long-term data (2005–2015) from Shenzhen, a megacity of over 20 million people that faces severe water shortages, to determine the relationship between water and energy for different types of power generation. It was found that power generation consumed huge amounts of water and that cooling water was the biggest water use category. Smaller power plants, such as the Yueliangwan power plant, which uses the closed cooling method, consume 2.36 million m³ of tap water per year, equivalent to the water supply of a small reservoir. However, larger power plants, such as the Mawan power plant and Dayawan nuclear power plant (using the open cooling method), use 0.92 and 3.42 billion m³ of seawater for cooling every year, respectively, equivalent to about 60% and 200% of the total annual water supply in Shenzhen, respectively. Therefore, large thermal power plants and nuclear power plants should be built in coastal areas with rich water resources rather than in arid or semi-arid areas. Additionally, the water use efficiency of nuclear power plants was found to be 0.22 m³/kWh, which was significantly lower than that of coal-fired power plants (0.10 m³/kWh) and gas-fired power plants (0.09 m³/kWh). Third, the water use efficiency of the closed cooling method was ten times higher than that of the open cooling method. Therefore, the closed cooling method is suitable for power plants constructed in areas without rich water resources. These results are useful for balancing the water and energy demands in the changing world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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21 pages, 1314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Water–Energy–Food Nexus: An Analysis of Food Sustainability in Ecuador

by Carlos Francisco Terneus Páez and Oswaldo Viteri Salazar

Resources 2022, 11(10), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources11100090 - 30 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2489

Abstract

In Latin America and the Caribbean, the interrelationships among water, energy, and food are complex, partly due to their development models, which are intensive in their use of these resources. This research aims to recognize and quantify the use of water and energy in food in Ecuador by identifying the main interrelationships, together with their causes and current impacts. Regarding methodology, this research uses sectoral data available at the national level and international databases to obtain cross indexes. The following indicators were sought: percentage of energy demanded by food in different stages, extraction of water for agricultural use, food energy productivity, virtual water, and embodied energy. As a result, it was estimated that food consumes 50% of imported energy and cocoa stands out with 7.6 km³ of water footprint; the products with the highest energy consumption are shrimp with 2090 KBOE and fish with 1459 KBOE. Fishing and aquaculture products present with a significantly high consumption level. Nearly all the virtual water and embodied energy are exported in banana, cocoa, and shrimp. Exporting groups make extensive use of the country’s water and energy resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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18 pages, 2985 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Treatment Effect of Chemical Coagulation Process in South African Brewery Wastewater: Comparison of Polyamine and Aluminum-Chlorohydrate coagulants

by Khaya Pearlman Shabangu, Babatunde Femi Bakare and Joseph Kapuku Bwapwa

Water 2022, 14(16), 2495; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14162495 - 13 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2813

Abstract

An evaluation of a laboratory scale chemical coagulation using aluminium chlorohydrate (1%) and polyamine (1%) coagulants on its effectiveness in the removal of bulk inert pollutant contents such as particulate chemical oxygen demand (COD) and turbidity to obtain clean effluent discharge and most cost-effectively treated effluent using a jar test was conducted in this current study. This study aimed to find the viable inert removal coagulant between the two above-mentioned coagulants in order to achieve zero liquid effluent discharge (ZLED). The preliminary results showed that adding variable dosages of polyamine and 50% aluminium chlorohydrate combined coagulants dosages presented an improved particulate chemical oxygen demand, color, and turbidity removal efficiencies. The ascertained turbidity removal efficiency using the combined coagulation dosage of polyamine–aluminium chlorohydrate (PAC) treatment was 90.50% and 59.36% particulate chemcial oxygen demand removal, as comparable to polyamine alone with particulate chemical oxygen demand removal of 50% and turbidity of 75%. Likewise, an appreciable removal efficacy was observed as the aluminium chlorohydrate treatment alone was for particulate chemical oxygen demand and turbidity was 37% and 54%, respectively. In essence, this study emphasized the knowledge gap of the significant effect of the polymeric polyamine flocculant strength in adopting the combined coagulation dosage method to improve its coagulation efficiency and the high agglomeration on suspended solids, thereby, removing more of the unwanted inert contents from brewery wastewater. To determine zero liquid effluent discharge, this study clearly recommended an integrated treatment approach, microbial fuel cell integrated with a lab scale chemical coagulation technique for efficient non-biodegradable pollutant removal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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16 pages, 6497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Hydraulic Characteristics of the Trapezoidal Energy Dissipation Baffle Block-Step Combination Energy Dissipator

by Yu Tian, Yongye Li and Xihuan Sun

Water 2022, 14(14), 2239; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14142239 - 16 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2049

Abstract

The step-type energy dissipator is widely used to construct small- and medium-sized reservoirs with its high energy dissipation rate. In order to further improve its air entrainment characteristics and energy dissipation, and reduce the influence of cavitation, in this paper, we added a trapezoidal energy dissipation baffle block at the convex corner of the traditional step to form a trapezoidal energy dissipation baffle block-step combination energy dissipator. We used a combination of hydraulic model experiments and numerical simulation to study the hydraulic characteristics. The results showed that the trapezoidal energy dissipation baffle block-step combination energy dissipator initial entrainment point, with the increase in flow rate, gradually moved backward. A step horizontal surface pressure change in the cavity recirculation area showed a prominent “V” shape; in front of the trapezoidal energy dissipation baffle block, there was a rising trend, and in the energy dissipation baffle block gap, there was a declining trend. The step vertical surface pressure showed a decreasing trend, and negative pressure appeared near the convex angle. The cross-section velocity distribution presented a trend of being small at the bottom and large at the surface, with a large velocity gradient in the longitudinal section of the energy dissipation baffle block and a small velocity gradient in the longitudinal section of the nonenergy dissipation baffle block. The energy dissipation rate reached more than 70% within the test range, and the energy dissipation rate gradually decreased with the increase in the flow rate. The combined energy dissipator is conducive to reducing the cavitation hazard and improving the energy dissipation effect, providing a reference for engineering design and existing step energy dissipators to remove risks and reinforcement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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21 pages, 1390 KiB

Open AccessReview

Temporal Understanding of the Water–Energy Nexus: A Literature Review

by Ana Luiza Fontenelle, Erik Nilsson, Ieda Geriberto Hidalgo, Cintia B. Uvo and Drielli Peyerl

Energies 2022, 15(8), 2851; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15082851 - 13 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2997

Abstract

Guaranteeing reliable access to water and clean energy has been one of the most debated topics to promote sustainable development, which has made the Water–Energy Nexus (WEN) a relevant field of study. However, despite much development of the WEN, there are still many gaps to be addressed. One of these gaps is the understanding of temporal features. To address this, this study aimed to identify, categorize, and analyze the main temporal features applied in WEN studies based on a review of academic publications from 2010 to 2021. The results showed that most of the recent literature has focused on understanding the WEN from a quantitative perspective, often does not provide clear motivations for their choice of time, and lacks understanding of the role of historical processes. To improve the temporal understanding in WEN research, there is a need to include more methodological diversity, enhance the understanding of historical developments, and diversify the data use. The presented measures provide a chance to improve the evaluation of key issues, enhance the understanding of drivers of trade-offs between the water and energy sectors, and ground the discussion besides quantification. Moreover, these measures help the scientific community better communicate results to a broader audience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Energy-Water Nexus)

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Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Energies energies	3.2	5.5	2008	16.1 Days	CHF 2600
Membranes membranes	4.2	4.4	2011	13.6 Days	CHF 2700
Resources resources	3.3	7.7	2012	23.8 Days	CHF 1600
Water water	3.4	5.5	2009	16.5 Days	CHF 2600

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