Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Catalysts catalysts	3.9	6.3	2011	14.3 Days	CHF 2700	Submit
Energies energies	3.2	5.5	2008	16.1 Days	CHF 2600	Submit
Molecules molecules	4.6	6.7	1996	14.6 Days	CHF 2700	Submit
Sustainability sustainability	3.9	5.8	2009	18.8 Days	CHF 2400	Submit
Sustainable Chemistry suschem	-	-	2020	29.1 Days	CHF 1000	Submit

13 pages, 1427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Use of Andean Tuber Waste for the Generation of Environmentally Sustainable Bioelectricity

by Segundo Rojas-Flores, Magaly De La Cruz-Noriega, Luis Cabanillas-Chirinos, Nélida Milly Otiniano, Nancy Soto-Deza, Nicole Terrones-Rodriguez and Mayra De La Cruz-Cerquin

Molecules 2024, 29(9), 1978; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29091978 (registering DOI) - 25 Apr 2024

Abstract

The growing demand for agricultural products has increased exponentially, causing their waste to increase and become a problem for society. Searching for sustainable solutions for organic waste management is increasingly urgent. This research focuses on considering the waste of an Andean tuber, such [...] Read more.

The growing demand for agricultural products has increased exponentially, causing their waste to increase and become a problem for society. Searching for sustainable solutions for organic waste management is increasingly urgent. This research focuses on considering the waste of an Andean tuber, such as Olluco, as a fuel source for generating electricity and becoming a potential sustainable energy source for companies dedicated to this area. This research used Olluco waste as fuel in single-chamber microbial fuel cells using carbon and zinc electrodes. An electric current and electric potential of 6.4 ± 0.4 mA and 0.99 ± 0.09 V were generated, operating with an electrical conductivity of 142.3 ± 6.1 mS/cm and a pH of 7.1 ± 0.2. It was possible to obtain a 94% decrease in COD and an internal resistance of 24.9 ± 2.8 Ω. The power density found was 373.8 ± 28.8 mW/cm² and the current density was 4.96 A/cm². On day 14, the cells were connected in earnest, achieving a power of 2.92 V and generating enough current to light an LED light bulb, thus demonstrating the potential that Olluco waste has to be used as fuel in microbial fuel cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

25 pages, 2543 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Coconut Waste: Discovering Sustainable Approaches to Advance a Circular Economy

by Fabrícia Vieira, Hortência E. P. Santana, Meirielly Jesus, Joana Santos, Preciosa Pires, Manuela Vaz-Velho, Daniel Pereira Silva and Denise Santos Ruzene

Sustainability 2024, 16(7), 3066; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16073066 - 07 Apr 2024

Viewed by 967

Abstract

The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) stands as a pivotal resource in tropical regions, playing a crucial role in both subsistence and economic activities across Asia, the Pacific Islands, and South America. While the harvesting of coconut fruit is essential for producing globally [...] Read more.

The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) stands as a pivotal resource in tropical regions, playing a crucial role in both subsistence and economic activities across Asia, the Pacific Islands, and South America. While the harvesting of coconut fruit is essential for producing globally utilized edible products, such as coconut oil, by small owners and large producers around the world in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries, concerns have arisen due to the substantial amount of agro-industrial residue generated in this process, posing environmental risks if they are not properly managed. Recognizing the environmental challenges, this paper emphasizes the transformative potential inherent in coconut waste, characterized by its lignocellulosic composition rich in lignin and multifunctional groups. By delving into the historical context of coconut economic exploration and its chemical composition, this review explores the diverse applications of coconut products, focusing on the utilization and processing of residues to generate sustainable products and byproducts. Ultimately, this comprehensive review underscores the significance of repurposing coconut waste, not only to mitigate the environmental impact but also as a valuable contributor to a circular economy, promoting the use of the lignocellulosic biomass in research and bolstering its role as a raw material in the chemical and energy sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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27 pages, 8160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Liquid Hot Water (LHW) and Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC) of Coffee Berry Waste: Kinetics, Catalysis, and Optimization for the Synthesis of Platform Chemicals

by Alejandra Sophia Lozano-Pérez and Carlos Alberto Guerrero-Fajardo

Sustainability 2024, 16(7), 2854; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072854 - 29 Mar 2024

Viewed by 437

Abstract

Colombia is the world’s leading producer of mildly washed arabica coffee and produces 12.6 million bags of green coffee, but at the same time, 784,000 tons of waste biomass are dumped in open fields, of which only 5% is recovered or used. The [...] Read more.

Colombia is the world’s leading producer of mildly washed arabica coffee and produces 12.6 million bags of green coffee, but at the same time, 784,000 tons of waste biomass are dumped in open fields, of which only 5% is recovered or used. The objective of this project was to evaluate the production of platform chemicals from these coffee wastes for sustainable resource management. To achieve this, biomass characterization was carried out using proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and structural analysis. Hydrothermal valorization was carried out at a temperature range of 120–180 °C (LHW) and 180–260 °C (HTC) for one hour. The platform chemicals obtained were quantified by HPLC-RI and monitored by pH and conductivity, and the solid fraction was characterized by monitoring the functional groups in IR spectroscopy and elemental analysis. Hydrolysis processes were obtained at 150 °C, production of platform chemicals at 180 °C, and maximum concentration at 180 °C-4 h; over 200 °C, degradation of the products in the liquid fraction starts to take place. Homogeneous basic and acid catalysts were used to improve the yields of the reaction. The kinetics of the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic structures to sugars were also analyzed and described, and reaction orders of 1 (LHW), 3 (HTC), and their respective reaction rate equations were reported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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12 pages, 3209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Waste Lignocellulosic Biomass as a Source for Bioethanol Production

by Klemen Rola, Sven Gruber, Darko Goričanec and Danijela Urbancl

Sustain. Chem. 2024, 5(1), 1-12; https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem5010001 - 28 Feb 2024

Viewed by 454

Abstract

Synthetically produced biofuels play a critical role in the energy transition away from fossil fuels. Biofuels could effectively lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to better air quality. One of these biofuels is bioethanol, which could act as a gasoline replacement. For [...] Read more.

Synthetically produced biofuels play a critical role in the energy transition away from fossil fuels. Biofuels could effectively lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to better air quality. One of these biofuels is bioethanol, which could act as a gasoline replacement. For this purpose, a simulation of bioethanol production through lignocellulosic biomass fermentation, focused on distillation, was carried out in simulation software Aspen Plus. Since the possibility of absolute ethanol production through distillation is limited by the ethanol–water azeotrope, pressure swing distillation (PSD) was used to obtain fuel-grade ethanol (EtOH) with a fraction of 99.60 wt.%. The flowsheet was optimised with NQ analysis, which is a simple optimisation method for distillation columns. We found that the PSD has the potential to concentrate the EtOH to a desired value, while simultaneously removing other unwanted impurities whose presence is a consequence of pretreatment and fermentation processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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25 pages, 6961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Catalytic Degradation of Lignin over Sulfonyl-Chloride-Modified Lignin-Based Porous Carbon-Supported Metal Phthalocyanine: Effect of Catalyst Concentrations

by Fangli Du, Xuequan Xian, Peiduo Tang and Yanming Li

Molecules 2024, 29(2), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29020347 - 10 Jan 2024

Viewed by 655

Abstract

A sulfonyl-chloride-modified lignin-based porous carbon-supported metal phthalocyanine catalyst was prepared and used to replace the traditional Fenton’s reagent for lignin degradation. The catalyst underwent a detailed characterization analysis in terms of functional group distributions, surface area, morphological structure, via FT-IR, XPS, BET, and [...] Read more.

A sulfonyl-chloride-modified lignin-based porous carbon-supported metal phthalocyanine catalyst was prepared and used to replace the traditional Fenton’s reagent for lignin degradation. The catalyst underwent a detailed characterization analysis in terms of functional group distributions, surface area, morphological structure, via FT-IR, XPS, BET, and SEM. The catalyst possessed a specific surface area of 638.98 m²/g and a pore volume of 0.291 cm³/g. The prepared catalyst was studied for its ability of oxidative degradation of lignin under different reaction conditions. By optimizing the reaction conditions, a maximum liquid product yield of 38.94% was obtained at 135 °C with 3.5 wt% of catalyst and 15 × 10⁻² mol/L H₂O₂; at the same time, a maximum phenols selectivity of 32.58% was achieved. The compositions and properties of liquid products obtained from lignin degradation using different catalyst concentrations were studied comparatively via GC-MS, FT-IR, ¹H-NMR, and EA. Furthermore, the structure changes of solid residues are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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26 pages, 7463 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Energy and Business Synergy: Leveraging Biogenic Resources from Agriculture, Waste, and Wastewater in German Rural Areas

by Moritz Pollack, Andrea Lück, Mario Wolf, Eckhard Kraft and Conrad Völker

Sustainability 2023, 15(24), 16573; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416573 - 05 Dec 2023

Viewed by 744

Abstract

The imperative to transform current energy provisions is widely acknowledged. However, scant attention has hitherto been directed toward rural municipalities and their innate resources, notably biogenic resources. In this paper, a methodological framework is developed to interconnect resources from waste, wastewater, and agricultural [...] Read more.

The imperative to transform current energy provisions is widely acknowledged. However, scant attention has hitherto been directed toward rural municipalities and their innate resources, notably biogenic resources. In this paper, a methodological framework is developed to interconnect resources from waste, wastewater, and agricultural domains for energy utilization. This entails cataloging existing resources, delineating their potential via quantitative assessments utilizing diverse technologies, and encapsulating them in a conceptual model. The formulated models underwent iterative evaluation with engagement from diverse stakeholders. Consequently, 3 main concepts, complemented by 72 sub-concepts, were delineated, all fostering positive contributions to climate protection and providing heat supply in the rural study area. The outcomes’ replicability is underscored by the study area’s generic structure and the employed methodology. Through these inquiries, a framework for the requisite energy transition, with a pronounced emphasis on the coupling of waste, wastewater, and agriculture sectors in rural environments, is robustly analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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27 pages, 4510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of the Techno-Economic and Environmental Assessment of Hydrodynamic Cavitation and Mechanical Stirring Reactors for the Production of Sustainable Hevea brasiliensis Ethyl Ester

by Olusegun David Samuel, Peter A. Aigba, Thien Khanh Tran, H. Fayaz, Carlo Pastore, Oguzhan Der, Ali Erçetin, Christopher C. Enweremadu and Ahmad Mustafa

Sustainability 2023, 15(23), 16287; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152316287 - 24 Nov 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 854

Abstract

Even though the hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (HCR) performs better than the mechanical stirring reactor (MSR) at producing biodiesel, and the ethylic process of biodiesel production is entirely bio-based and environmentally friendly, non-homogeneous ethanol with the triglyceride of underutilized oil, despite the many technical [...] Read more.

Even though the hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (HCR) performs better than the mechanical stirring reactor (MSR) at producing biodiesel, and the ethylic process of biodiesel production is entirely bio-based and environmentally friendly, non-homogeneous ethanol with the triglyceride of underutilized oil, despite the many technical advantages, has discouraged the biodiesel industry and stakeholders from producing ethylic biodiesel in HCRs. This study examines the generation of biodiesel from rubber seed oil (RSO) by comparing the ethyl-based HCR and MSR. Despite ethyl’s technical advantages and environmental friendliness, a lack of scalable protocols for various feedstocks hinders its global adoption. The research employs Aspen HYSYS simulations to investigate the ethanolysis process for RSO in both HCRs and MSRs. The HCR proves more productive, converting 99.01% of RSO compared to the MSR’s 94.85%. The HCR’s exergetic efficiency is 89.56% vs. the MSR’s 54.92%, with significantly lower energy usage. Removing catalytic and glycerin purification stages impacts both processes, with HC showing lower exergy destruction. Economic analysis reveals the HCR’s lower investment cost and higher net present value (USD 57.2 million) and return on investment (176%) compared to the MSR’s. The HCR also has a much smaller carbon footprint, emitting 7.2 t CO₂ eq./year, while the MSR emits 172 t CO₂ eq./year. This study provides database information for quickly scaling up the production of ethanolic biodiesel from non-edible and third-generation feedstocks in the HCR and MSR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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21 pages, 2931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solketal Production Using Eco-Friendly Reduced Graphene Oxide as the Catalyst

by Vinicius Rossa, Sancler da Costa Vasconcelos, Gisel Chenard Díaz, Josué de Almeida Resende, João Pedro Reys Mattos, Vinicius Gomes da Costa Madriaga, Fernanda Franco Massante, Yordanka Reyes Cruz, Juan Lucas Nachez, Yutao Xing, Eduardo Ariel Ponzio and Thiago de Melo Lima

Catalysts 2023, 13(11), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13111427 - 10 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 973

Abstract

In this study, two materials based on reduced graphene oxide (rGO_H or rGO_E) were synthesized through the Hummers methodology and a more sustainable electrochemical method. These materials were extensively characterized and tested as catalysts in solketal production. Both rGO_H [...] Read more.

In this study, two materials based on reduced graphene oxide (rGO_H or rGO_E) were synthesized through the Hummers methodology and a more sustainable electrochemical method. These materials were extensively characterized and tested as catalysts in solketal production. Both rGO_H and rGO_E demonstrated significant catalytic activity, achieving 66.18% and 63.97% conversion rates, respectively. The catalytic activity of the synthesized materials was 30 times more efficient than the homogeneous catalyst p-Toluenesulfonic acid. Pseudo-homogeneous and heterogeneous kinetic models were employed to gain further insights into the glycerol ketalization reaction with acetone. The pseudo-homogeneous model suggested that the direct rate constant was lower than the reverse rate constant. In this sense, a reversible bimolecular reaction was proposed. The heterogeneous kinetic models revealed that in the Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson mechanism, the controlling step of the reaction was the glycerol-acetone surface reaction on the catalyst. In contrast, in the Eley-Rideal mechanism, the reaction was controlled by the adsorbed glycerol on the reaction surface reacting with the available acetone in the bulk fluid. In the reusability tests, the rGO_E catalyst demonstrated superior performance over five consecutive cycles, maintaining the highest activity without needing post-reaction washing or treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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14 pages, 1386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydraulic Retention Time as an Operational Tool for the Production of Short-Chain Carboxylates via Anaerobic Fermentation of Carbohydrate-Rich Waste

by Kaoutar Aboudi, Silvia Greses and Cristina González-Fernández

Molecules 2023, 28(18), 6635; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28186635 - 15 Sep 2023

Viewed by 831

Abstract

The carboxylate platform is a sustainable and cost-effective way to valorize wastes into biochemicals that replace those of fossil origin. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are intermediates generated during anaerobic fermentation (AF) and are considered high-value-added biochemicals among carboxylates. This investigation aimed to produce [...] Read more.

The carboxylate platform is a sustainable and cost-effective way to valorize wastes into biochemicals that replace those of fossil origin. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are intermediates generated during anaerobic fermentation (AF) and are considered high-value-added biochemicals among carboxylates. This investigation aimed to produce SCFAs through the AF of sugar beet molasses at 25 °C and semi-continuous feeding mode in completely stirred tank reactors. A particular focus was devoted to the role of hydraulic retention time (HRT) variation in SCFAs production and distribution profile. The highest SCFAs concentration (44.1 ± 2.3 gCOD/L) was reached at the HRT of 30 days. Caproic acid accounted for 32.5–35.5% (COD-concentration basis) at the long HRTs of 20 and 30 days due to the carbon chain elongation of shorter carboxylic acids. The findings of this study proved that HRT could be used to steer the anaerobic process toward the targeted SCFAs for specific uses. Furthermore, the successful operation at low-temperature conditions (i.e., 25 °C) makes the process economically promising. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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12 pages, 3546 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Sodium Silicates Modified Calcium Oxide as a High-Performance Solid Base Catalyst for Biodiesel Production

by Shunpan Zhang, Junying Fu, Shiyou Xing, Ming Li, Xiaochun Liu, Lingmei Yang and Pengmei Lv

Catalysts 2023, 13(4), 775; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal13040775 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1749

Abstract

Under the energy crisis and with greenhouse gases causing an ecological imbalance, biofuel has attracted worldwide attention due to its sustainability and low net-carbon emission. For years, the traditional biodiesel industry has been demanding a high-performance solid base catalyst. Its poor reusability is [...] Read more.

Under the energy crisis and with greenhouse gases causing an ecological imbalance, biofuel has attracted worldwide attention due to its sustainability and low net-carbon emission. For years, the traditional biodiesel industry has been demanding a high-performance solid base catalyst. Its poor reusability is the bottleneck for a promising calcium-based solid-base catalyst. In this work, we successfully adopted a new silicate-strength strategy to improve the stability while preserving the activity of the catalyst. The newly synthesized catalyst, NCSO, had two main catalytic phases, Na₂CaSiO₄ and CaO, and showed a 98.2% FAMEs yield in 60 min at 80 °C with a methanol/oil molar ratio of 9:1 and 5 wt.% catalyst loading. After 12 consecutive reuses, a 57.3% FAMEs yield could still be achieved. The effect of the reaction temperature, methanol ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction time on the FAMEs yield was also investigated. With a combined characterization of XRD, XPS, and SEM, etc., we confirmed that Na₂CaSiO₄ and CaO showed a synergistic effect in catalyzing the transesterification reaction: the addition of the Na₂CaSiO₄ phase in NCSO could significantly improve the activity of CaO, while the CaO phase, in turn, helps to stabilize the Na₂CaSiO₄ phase. This silicate-strength strategy provides a new route to synthesize stable and highly active solid base catalysts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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13 pages, 2620 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Pyrolytic Conversion of Cellulosic Pulps from “Lignin-First” Biomass Fractionation

by Charles A. Mullen, Candice Ellison and Yaseen Elkasabi

Energies 2023, 16(7), 3236; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073236 - 04 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1207

Abstract

Utilization of lignin is among the most pressing problems for biorefineries that convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuels and chemicals. Recently “lignin-first” biomass fractionation has received increasing attention. In most biorefining concepts, carbohydrate portions of the biomass are separated, and their monomeric sugar components [...] Read more.

Utilization of lignin is among the most pressing problems for biorefineries that convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuels and chemicals. Recently “lignin-first” biomass fractionation has received increasing attention. In most biorefining concepts, carbohydrate portions of the biomass are separated, and their monomeric sugar components released, while the relatively chemically stable lignin rich byproduct remains underutilized. Conversely, in lignin-first processes, a one-pot fractionation and depolymerization is performed, leading to an oil rich in phenolic compounds and a cellulosic pulp. Usually, the pulp is considered as a fermentation feedstock to produce ethanol. Herein, the results of a study where various cellulosic pulps are tested for their potential to produce valuable products via pyrolysis processes, assessed via analytical pyrolysis (py-GC), are presented. Samples of herbaceous (switchgrass) and woody biomass (oak) were subjected to both an acid-catalyzed and a supported-metal-catalyzed reductive lignin-first depolymerization, and the pulps were compared. Fast pyrolysis of the pulps produced levoglucosan in yields of up to about 35 wt %. When normalized for the amount of biomass entering the entire process, performing the lignin-first reductive depolymerization resulted in 4.0–4.6 times the yield of levoglucosan than pyrolysis of raw biomass. Pulps derived from switchgrass were better feedstocks for levoglucosan production compared with pulps from oak, and pulps produced from metal-on-carbon catalyzed depolymerization produced more levoglucosan than those from acid-catalyzed depolymerization. Catalytic pyrolysis over HZSM-5 produced aromatic hydrocarbons from the pulps. In this case, the yields were similar from both feedstocks and catalyst types, suggesting that there is no advantage to lignin fractionation prior to zeolite-catalyzed catalytic pyrolysis for hydrocarbons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biomass Transformation: Sustainable Development)

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