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Water
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Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends
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Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 December 2021) | Viewed by 38916

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Nicolò Colombani

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Università Politecnica delle Marche, ‎Ancona, Italy
Interests: groundwater flow modelling; reactive transport modelling; saline aquifers; unsaturated zone transport; groundwater quality
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The aim of this Special Issue of Water is to present the latest research on the quantification of surface and groundwater salinization processes in the surface water–soil–aquifer continuum. The most susceptible zones to such processes are coastal areas, which are also the most populated regions of the Earth. In such areas, the significant increases in sea level and atmospheric temperatures due to climate change could exacerbate water resources salinization. Even areas distant from the sea can be threatened by water resource salinization, for example, in arid areas, evapoconcentration processes can lead to salt accumulation and soil salinization and in mining areas, formation waters are pumped away for excavation purposes or from desalination plants that produce high amounts of brine. Thus, to correctly quantify and predict of water resources salinization trends, hydrological, hydrogeological, and geochemical processes must be well characterized. In fact, aquifers are usually well connected to surface waters, and the mutual exchange of solutes is rather common. Holistic approaches and models can be employed to disentangle these complex interactions using different techniques such as remote sensing, hydrogeological, geophysical and geochemical techniques. All these data can be used to calibrate and validate numerical models, providing robust conceptual models to manage the ongoing and future water resources use.

This Special Issue will present a limited number of papers focusing on the main aspects of water resources salinization. Preference will be given to studies that combine geochemical and geophysical data, numerical modelling and their conjunctive use to monitor, assess and quantify relevant processes in the surface water–soil–aquifer continuum. We invite authors to submit papers in the following areas as well as on related topics:

  • The monitoring of water salinization processes using a combination of remote sensing, geochemical and geophysical techniques.
  • Interactions between plants (evapotranspiration) and climate in soil salinization processes.
  • The development of numerical models aimed at predicting future trends of water resources salinization.
  • New threats from plant desalination and the environmental disposal of produced brine.

Dr. Nicolò Colombani
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • evapoconcentration processes
  • surface–groundwater interactions
  • multidisciplinary aquifer characterization
  • density driven flow
  • numerical modelling
  • sea level rise and climate change

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 199 KiB  
Editorial
Special Issue “Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends”
by Nicolò Colombani
Water 2022, 14(11), 1806; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14111806 - 03 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1168
Abstract
All over the Earth, more and more studies have shown the effects of climate changes generated by anthropic release of greenhouse gasses on the hydrological cycle [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

23 pages, 10130 KiB  
Article
Sensitivity, Hazard, and Vulnerability of Farmlands to Saltwater Intrusion in Low-Lying Coastal Areas of Venice, Italy
by Luigi Tosi, Cristina Da Lio, Alessandro Bergamasco, Marta Cosma, Chiara Cavallina, Andrea Fasson, Andrea Viezzoli, Luca Zaggia and Sandra Donnici
Water 2022, 14(1), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14010064 - 30 Dec 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2936
Abstract
Saltwater intrusion is a growing threat for coastal aquifers and agricultural practices in low-lying plains. Most of the farmlands located between the margin of the Southern Venice lagoon and the Northern Po delta, Italy, lie a few meters below mean sea level and [...] Read more.
Saltwater intrusion is a growing threat for coastal aquifers and agricultural practices in low-lying plains. Most of the farmlands located between the margin of the Southern Venice lagoon and the Northern Po delta, Italy, lie a few meters below mean sea level and are drained by a large network of artificial channels and hydraulic infrastructures to avoid frequent flooding and allow agricultural practices. This work proposes an assessment of the vulnerability to saltwater intrusion, following a new concept of the hazard status, resulting in combining the depth of the freshwater/saltwater interface and the electrical resistivity of the shallow subsoil. The sensitivity of the farmland system was assessed by using ground elevation, distance from freshwater and saltwater sources, permeability, potential runoff, land subsidence, and sea-level rise indicators. Relative weights were assigned by a pairwise comparison following the Analytic Hierarchy Process approach. The computed vulnerability map highlights that about 30% of the farmlands is under strong and extreme conditions, 28% between marginal and moderate, and 40% under negligible conditions. Results from previous vulnerability assessments are discussed in order to explain their differences in terms of hazard status conceptualization and sensitivity characterization of farmland system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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17 pages, 56811 KiB  
Article
Hydrochemical, Isotopic, and Geophysical Studies Applied to the Evaluation of Groundwater Salinization Processes in Quaternary Beach Ridges in a Semiarid Coastal Area of Northern Patagonia, Argentina
by Eleonora Carol, Santiago Perdomo, María del Pilar Álvarez, Carolina Tanjal and Pablo Bouza
Water 2021, 13(24), 3509; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243509 - 08 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2301
Abstract
Quaternary sea level fluctuations have led to the development of beach ridges on many South Atlantic coasts. The objective of this paper was to asses from lithological, hydrochemical, isotopic, and geophysical studies the salinization processes affecting groundwater stored in Pleistocene and Holocene beach [...] Read more.
Quaternary sea level fluctuations have led to the development of beach ridges on many South Atlantic coasts. The objective of this paper was to asses from lithological, hydrochemical, isotopic, and geophysical studies the salinization processes affecting groundwater stored in Pleistocene and Holocene beach ridges of the northern Patagonian coast. A hydrogeomorphological characterization of the area was performed using digital elevation models, the interpretation of satellite images, and field studies. Vertical electrical soundings were performed on transects running perpendicular to beach ridges in order to define variations in the freshwater-saltwater interface position. The salinity, chemistry, and stable isotopes of the groundwater were analyzed. The results demonstrated that the groundwater salinization of Pleistocene ridges responds to processes associated with the geological-geomorphological evolution of the area. The cementation of these surface sediments limits rainwater infiltration, which consequently prevents the development of freshwater lenses. This suggests that saline water is the result of ancient marine ingressions. Freshwater lenses develop in Holocene beach ridges; however, slight water salinization is detectable in the most populated areas as a result of intensive exploitation. The data provided are useful for freshwater resource prospection along the arid coast of Patagonia, where beach ridge deposits abound and populations experience serious drinking water supply problems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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18 pages, 8071 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Soil Salt and Ion Contents Based on Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Data: A Case Study of Baidunzi Basin, China
by Libing Wang, Bo Zhang, Qian Shen, Yue Yao, Shengyin Zhang, Huaidong Wei, Rongpeng Yao and Yaowen Zhang
Water 2021, 13(4), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13040559 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2560
Abstract
Soil salinity due to irrigation diversion affects regional agriculture, and the development of soil composition estimation models for the dynamic monitoring of regional salinity is important for salinity control. In this study, we evaluated the performance of hyperspectral data measured using an analytical [...] Read more.
Soil salinity due to irrigation diversion affects regional agriculture, and the development of soil composition estimation models for the dynamic monitoring of regional salinity is important for salinity control. In this study, we evaluated the performance of hyperspectral data measured using an analytical spectral device (ASD) field spec standard-res hand-held spectrometer and satellite sensor visible shortwave infrared advanced hyperspectral imager (AHSI) in estimating the soil salt content (SSC). First derivative analysis (FDA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were applied to the data using the raw spectra (RS) to select the best model input data. We tested the ability of these three groups of data as input data for partial least squares regression (PLSR), principal component regression (PCR), and multiple linear regression (MLR). Finally, an estimation model of the SSC, Na+, Cl−, and SO42− contents was established using the best input data and modeling method, and a spatial distribution map of the soil composition content was drawn. The results show that the soil spectra obtained from the satellite hyperspectral data (AHSI) and laboratory spectral data (ASD) were consistent when the SSC was low, and as the SSC increased, the spectral curves of the ASD data showed little change in the curve characteristics, while the AHSI data showed more pronounced features, and this change was manifested in the AHSI images as darker pixels with a lower SSC and brighter pixels with a higher SSC. The AHSI data demonstrated a strong response to the change in SSC; therefore, the AHSI data had a greater advantage compared with the ASD data in estimating the soil salt content. In the modeling process, RS performed the best in estimating the SSC and Na+ content, with the R2 reaching 0.79 and 0.58, respectively, and obtaining low root mean squared error (RMSE) values. FDA and PCA performed the best in estimating Cl− and SO42−, while MLR outperformed PLSR and PCR in estimating the content of the soil components in the region. In addition, the hyperspectral camera data used in this study were very cost-effective and can potentially be used for the evaluation of soil salinization with a wide range and high accuracy, thus reducing the errors associated with the collection of individual samples using hand-held hyperspectral instruments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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22 pages, 7857 KiB  
Article
Flow and Transport Numerical Model of a Coastal Aquifer Based on the Hydraulic Importance of a Dyke and Its Impact on Water Quality. Manglaralto—Ecuador
by Paúl Carrión-Mero, F. Javier Montalván, Fernando Morante-Carballo, Carolina Loor-Flores de Valgas, Boris Apolo-Masache and Javier Heredia
Water 2021, 13(4), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13040443 - 08 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4194
Abstract
Coastal aquifers are part of the natural resources contributing to local development and promote resilience in the most vulnerable communities near the sea. Manglaralto, an Ecuadorian coastal parish, is affected by water resource scarcity. The increase in salinity and deterioration of the water [...] Read more.
Coastal aquifers are part of the natural resources contributing to local development and promote resilience in the most vulnerable communities near the sea. Manglaralto, an Ecuadorian coastal parish, is affected by water resource scarcity. The increase in salinity and deterioration of the water quality is generated by the local and floating population’s demand, causing an increase in the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) concentrations and decreasing the aquifer’s piezometric levels. The aim is to establish a numerical model of flow and transport of the Manglaralto coastal aquifer by using hydrogeological data and Visual Transin software, relating the hydraulic importance of a dyke’s design (“tape”) and its impact on the quality of the water. The methodology is (i) hydrogeological database analysis, (ii) the system’s recharge concerning the soil water balance, (iii) the boundary conditions of the flow and transport model and, (iv) the results and validation of the numerical simulation. The results configure the importance of the coastal aquifer’s artificial recharge in the area where the tape is located, as reflected in the increase in piezometric levels and the decrease in salinity in wells near the sea. In conclusion, the numerical model of flow and transport allows expanding the knowledge of the variation of the piezometric levels and TDS concentrations over time, the importance of recharge in the hydrogeological system’s operation, and correct community management resilience and projection to sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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23 pages, 2624 KiB  
Article
Salinity Management in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia
by Barry Hart, Glen Walker, Asitha Katupitiya and Jane Doolan
Water 2020, 12(6), 1829; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061829 - 26 Jun 2020
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9063
Abstract
The southern Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) is particularly vulnerable to salinity problems. Much of the Basin’s landscape and underlying groundwater is naturally saline with groundwater not being suitable for human or irrigation use. Since European settlement in the early 1800s, two actions—the clearance of [...] Read more.
The southern Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) is particularly vulnerable to salinity problems. Much of the Basin’s landscape and underlying groundwater is naturally saline with groundwater not being suitable for human or irrigation use. Since European settlement in the early 1800s, two actions—the clearance of deep-rooted native vegetation for dryland agriculture and the development of irrigation systems on the Riverine Plains and Mallee region—have resulted in more water now entering the groundwater systems, resulting in mobilization of the salt to the land surface and to rivers. While salinity has been a known issue since the 1960s, it was only in the mid-1980s that was recognized as one of the most significant environmental and economic challenges facing the MDB. Concerted and cooperative action since 1988 by the Commonwealth and Basin state governments under a salinity management approach implemented over the past 30 years has resulted in salinity now being largely under control, but still requiring on-going active management into the future. The approach has involved the development of three consecutive salinity strategies governing actions from 1988 to 2000, from 2001 to 2015, and the most recent from 2016 to 2030. The basis of the approach and all three strategies is an innovative, world-leading salinity management framework consisting of: An agreed salinity target; joint works and measures to reduce salt entering the rivers; and an agreed accountability and governance system consisting of a system of salinity credits to offset debits, a robust and agreed method to quantify the credits and debits, and a salinity register to keep track of credits and debits. This paper first provides background to the salinity issue in the MDB, then reviews the three salinity management strategies, the various actions that have been implemented through these strategies to control salinity, and the role of the recent Basin Plan in salinity management. We then discuss the future of salinity in the MDB given that climate change is forecast to lead to a hotter, drier and more variable climate (particularly more frequent droughts), and that increased salt loads to the River Murray are predicted to come from the lower reaches of the Mallee region. Finally, we identify the key success factors of the program. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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23 pages, 6269 KiB  
Article
Factors Affecting Water Drainage Long-Time Series in the Salinized Low-Lying Coastal Area of Ravenna (Italy)
by Beatrice Maria Sole Giambastiani, Vito Raffaele Macciocca, Mario Molducci and Marco Antonellini
Water 2020, 12(1), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12010256 - 16 Jan 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9680
Abstract
The low-lying coastal area of Ravenna (North-eastern Italy), like the majority of delta and coastal zones around the world, is affected by groundwater salinization due to natural processes (such as low topography, natural land subsidence, seawater encroachment along estuaries, etc.) and anthropogenic activities [...] Read more.
The low-lying coastal area of Ravenna (North-eastern Italy), like the majority of delta and coastal zones around the world, is affected by groundwater salinization due to natural processes (such as low topography, natural land subsidence, seawater encroachment along estuaries, etc.) and anthropogenic activities (i.e., increased anthropogenic subsidence rate, sea level rise, geofluids extraction, and drainage). Among all factors causing aquifer salinization, water drainage plays an important role in lowering the hydraulic head and favouring saltwater seepage in the Ravenna coastal aquifer. A network of drainage canals and water pumping stations first allowed for the reclamation of the low-lying territory and today are fundamental to keep land and infrastructures dry and maintain effective soil depth for agriculture practices. The aim of this work is to identify and assess factors affecting water drainage long-time series (1971–2017) of the most important mechanical drainage basin in this low-lying coastal area. Statistical analyses of drainage, climate, and land use change datasets help constrain the relative weight of each single factor potentially causing an increase of water drainage through time. The results show that, among these factors, subsidence rates and seepage processes are the most significant. The data trends also indicate that the climate, especially in terms of precipitation amount and extreme events, played no important role during the studied time interval. The process of infiltration soil capacity loss due to urbanization and consequent soil sealing probably has a small secondary effect. Moreover, an increase in pumping through time will exacerbate aquifer salinization and compromise freshwater availability in the coastal area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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15 pages, 3346 KiB  
Article
Modelling Actual and Future Seawater Intrusion in the Variconi Coastal Wetland (Italy) Due to Climate and Landscape Changes
by Micòl Mastrocicco, Gianluigi Busico, Nicolò Colombani, Marco Vigliotti and Daniela Ruberti
Water 2019, 11(7), 1502; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11071502 - 19 Jul 2019
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 5148
Abstract
Coastal freshwater resources are commonly under high risk of being contaminated from seawater. The main processes that affect seawater intrusion are groundwater overexploitation, land use change, and climate change effects. In this context coastal lagoons represent the more sensitive environments prone to seawater [...] Read more.
Coastal freshwater resources are commonly under high risk of being contaminated from seawater. The main processes that affect seawater intrusion are groundwater overexploitation, land use change, and climate change effects. In this context coastal lagoons represent the more sensitive environments prone to seawater intrusion. Numerical modelling is a useful tool to understand and predict seawater intrusion. In this study, a three-dimensional SEAWAT model is employed to simulate the seawater intrusion to coastal aquifers of Variconi Oasis (Italy). The present simulation was divided into a calibration and a validation model, then the model was used to predict the salinization trend up to 2050. Results show the role of the sea in salinizing the beach front, while the retrodunal environment is characterized by transitional environments. Future seawater intrusion scenarios considering only climate data showed no significative differences in respect to the actual situation. The same happens considering also a low sea level rise prediction. On the contrary, the worst scenario (high sea level rise prediction), depicts a quite different situation, with a saline intrusion in the Variconi oasis that will severely affect the fragile transitional ecosystem. This modelling framework can be used to quantify the effects of climate changes in similar coastal environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinization of Water Resources: Ongoing and Future Trends)
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