Editorial

3 pages, 185 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments

by Vito Ferro and Alessio Nicosia

Water 2023, 15(15), 2846; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152846 - 07 Aug 2023

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Soil erosion is a process in which soil particles are first detached from the soil surface and then transported by erosive agents such as rainfall, overland flow and channelized flows in rills, ephemeral gullies and gullies [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

Research

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18 pages, 8193 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Suspended Sediment Transport in Mediterranean Streams: Monitoring and Load Estimation

by Anna Maria De Girolamo, Giovanni Francesco Ricci, Ossama M. M. Abdelwahab, Antonio Lo Porto, Fabio Milillo, Addolorata Maria Netti and Francesco Gentile

Water 2023, 15(15), 2715; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152715 - 27 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 818

Abstract

The suspended sediment (SS) load provides valuable insights into soil loss magnitude, requiring comprehensive monitoring of streamflow (Q) and SS concentrations (SSC) across various hydrological conditions. The primary aim of this paper was to quantify SS loads in two mountainous river basins: the [...] Read more.

The suspended sediment (SS) load provides valuable insights into soil loss magnitude, requiring comprehensive monitoring of streamflow (Q) and SS concentrations (SSC) across various hydrological conditions. The primary aim of this paper was to quantify SS loads in two mountainous river basins: the Carapelle (506 km²) and the Celone (72 km²) located in Apulia (Southeast Italy) where different monitoring strategies were adopted (i.e., continuous and discrete). The specific objective was to develop sediment rating curves to address gaps in the SSC time series. An optical probe was used to continuously monitor the SSC during 2007 to 2011 in a river section of the Carapelle river, while Q was measured with the ultrasonic method. A comprehensive dataset comprising continuous Q measurements and discrete SSC measurements was systematically acquired for the Celone river over the period of 2010 to 2011. Distinct sediment rating curves were formulated for three specific subsets of data delineated by discernible hydrological conditions (i.e., high, normal, and low flow) and SSCs were computed for the missing daily records. The annual specific sediment load exhibited a range of 2.4 to 6.06 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for the Celone river, while the Carapelle river displayed a range of 0.9 to 7.45 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. A significant majority of the SS load was transported during high-flow conditions, accounting for over 80% of the total load. In contrast, during low-flow conditions, the SS load constituted less than 1% of the total load. The findings of this study highlight the significance of the hydrological regime as a critical factor influencing sediment transport in mountainous Mediterranean rivers. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the duration of the sampling period, along with its specific characteristics, such as dry or wet conditions, can have a substantial impact on the accurate quantification of the sediment load. Full article

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21 pages, 18444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Logs Downed by Wildfires as Erosion Barriers to Encourage Forest Auto-Regeneration: A Case Study in Calabria, Italy

by Giuseppe Bombino, Giuseppe Barbaro, Pedro Pérez-Cutillas, Daniela D’Agostino, Pietro Denisi, Giandomenico Foti and Santo Marcello Zimbone

Water 2023, 15(13), 2378; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15132378 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1195

Abstract

The easy implementation of ecologically-sound remediation measures for the prompt stabilisation of burned areas may be crucial in Mediterranean forest environments. Manual in situ contour redirection of burned felled logs could aid in soil erosion control and facilitate forest self-regeneration. In this study, [...] Read more.

The easy implementation of ecologically-sound remediation measures for the prompt stabilisation of burned areas may be crucial in Mediterranean forest environments. Manual in situ contour redirection of burned felled logs could aid in soil erosion control and facilitate forest self-regeneration. In this study, a plot-scale runoff/sediment yield survey was conducted in Calabria, Italy, within a Mediterranean pine forest that was affected by an extreme wildfire spanning over 15,000 hectares in the summer of 2021. The hydrological response to 24 rainfall events was analysed after one year of monitoring using nine Wischmeier and Smith 20% sloping plots, which were distributed into three plot-blocks representing different conditions (forested, burned with randomly directed fallen logs, and burned with fallen logs manually redirected along contour lines). The post-fire condition (with felled logs in random positions) exhibited a consistent overall increase (approximately four times) in runoff and sediment yield compared to the pre-fire situation. This degradation effect was mitigated by approximately 30% through the manual redirection of burned logs, which promoted early (three to five weeks) vegetation regeneration (including tree emergence) and enhanced coverage as vegetation spread from the log positions. The results obtained so far provide encouraging insights and warrant further research on steeper slopes and complementary aspects (regulatory, biological, mechanical, economic, etc.). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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13 pages, 1954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Random Forest Machine Learning Approach for the Identification and Quantification of Erosive Events

by Lorenzo Vergni and Francesca Todisco

Water 2023, 15(12), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15122225 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1677

Abstract

Predicting the occurrence of erosive rain events and quantifying the corresponding soil loss is extremely useful in all applications where assessing phenomenon impacts is required. These problems, addressed in the literature at different spatial and temporal scales and according to the most diverse [...] Read more.

Predicting the occurrence of erosive rain events and quantifying the corresponding soil loss is extremely useful in all applications where assessing phenomenon impacts is required. These problems, addressed in the literature at different spatial and temporal scales and according to the most diverse approaches, are here addressed by implementing random forest (RF) machine learning models. For this purpose, we used the datasets built through many years of soil loss observations at the plot-scale experimental site SERLAB (central Italy). Based on 32 features describing rainfall characteristics, the RF classifier has achieved a global accuracy of 84.8% in recognizing erosive and non-erosive events, thus demonstrating slightly higher performances than previously used (non-machine learning) methodologies. A critical performance is the percentage of erosive events correctly recognized to the observed total (72.3%). However, since the most relevant erosive events are correctly identified, we found only a slight underestimation of the total rainfall erosivity (91%). The RF regression model for estimating the event soil loss, based on three event features (runoff coefficient, erosivity, and period of occurrence), demonstrates better performances (RMSE = 2.30 Mg ha⁻¹) than traditional regression models (RMSE = 3.34 Mg ha⁻¹). Full article

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19 pages, 2196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agricultural Practices for Hillslope Erosion Mitigation: A Case Study in Morocco

by Jean Marie Vianney Nsabiyumva, Ciro Apollonio, Giulio Castelli, Andrea Petroselli, Mohamed Sabir and Federico Preti

Water 2023, 15(11), 2120; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15112120 - 02 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

In the last decades, the Rif area in Morocco has been frequently affected by soil erosion due to intense rainfall events. In order to help farmers improve their lives and avoid damages caused by this phenomenon, a management project (the MCA Project) aiming [...] Read more.

In the last decades, the Rif area in Morocco has been frequently affected by soil erosion due to intense rainfall events. In order to help farmers improve their lives and avoid damages caused by this phenomenon, a management project (the MCA Project) aiming to grow fruit trees has been realized. The objective of this study was to evaluate, in three provinces of Morocco, the effect on the hydrological response of selected erosion control management techniques combined with olive tree plantations. The investigated variables were the final infiltration (If), the imbibition of rainwater (Pi), the runoff coefficient (Kr), and the soil detachment (D). In particular, for each investigated soil utilization, three replications of a rain simulation test (80 mm/h) and soil sampling were conducted. Results for surface conditions demonstrate that under vegetation in matorral and fallow, the surface is covered at more than 75% with a high content of organic matter (OM) at 4.5% and 2.6%, respectively. Despite the compaction observed in those land uses, the surface area opened exceeded 90% in the study area. Regarding the soils physical properties, they were rich in silt at more than 40%; the rate of porosity is high where bulk density is low. At the Taounate site, low porosity was at 62% in fallow and at 55% in plowing, with high densities of 1.01 g/cm² and 1.2 g/cm², respectively. Tests also demonstrate that vegetation has an important role in moisture conservation in the depths of 0 to 10 cm at all sites with macroagregate stability (MA%) compared to plowing sites. In terms of soil hydrology, vegetation reduces the runoff because, under matorral (it was at 0%), it avoids soil erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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15 pages, 3512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Internal Erosion Stabilization of Cohesionless Soil Using Lime

by Shaziya Banu and Mousa Attom

Water 2023, 15(11), 1992; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15111992 - 24 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1340

Abstract

Soil embankments are valuable for the adequate reserve and supply of water to multiple industries. However, they are susceptible to internal soil erosion, which may ultimately lead to structural collapse. To counteract this issue, soil stabilization is practiced in the construction industry. This [...] Read more.

Soil embankments are valuable for the adequate reserve and supply of water to multiple industries. However, they are susceptible to internal soil erosion, which may ultimately lead to structural collapse. To counteract this issue, soil stabilization is practiced in the construction industry. This paper proposes the internal erosion stabilization of cohesionless soil using quicklime. For this research, two cohesionless soil types were investigated and treated with quicklime: poorly graded and well-graded cohesionless soils. For poorly graded soil, the lime percentage varied from 0.0% to 6.0% based on the soil’s weight, while for well-graded soil, it ranged from 0.0% to 3.0%. All the soil specimens were cured for 24 h and tested using the hole erosion test (HET) to replicate the internal erosion effortlessly. The analyzed results demonstrated the efficiency of quicklime as an internal erosion stabilizer for cohesionless soils. The optimum lime content for poorly graded cohesionless soils was 5.0%; for well-graded, the percentage was approximately 3.0%. Moreover, adding lime significantly improved the strength, critical shear stress, and erosion rate index of the soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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23 pages, 5159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ensemble of Weight of Evidence and Logistic Regression for Gully Erosion Susceptibility Mapping in the Kakia-Esamburmbur Catchment, Kenya

by Lorraine K. Nkonge, John M. Gathenya, Jeremiah K. Kiptala, Charles K. Cheruiyot and Andrea Petroselli

Water 2023, 15(7), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071292 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1719

Abstract

Gully erosion is the most intensive type of water erosion and it leads to land degradation across the world. Therefore, analyzing the spatial occurrence of this phenomenon is crucial for land management. The objective of this research was to predict gully erosion susceptibility [...] Read more.

Gully erosion is the most intensive type of water erosion and it leads to land degradation across the world. Therefore, analyzing the spatial occurrence of this phenomenon is crucial for land management. The objective of this research was to predict gully erosion susceptibility in the Kakia-Esamburmbur catchment in Narok, Kenya, which is badly affected by gully erosion. GIS and ensemble techniques using weight of evidence (WoE) and logistic regression (LR) models were used to map the susceptibility to gully erosion. First, 130 gullies were detected in the study area and portioned out 70:30 for training and validation, respectively. Nine gully erosion conditioning factors were selected as predictors. The relationships between the gully locations and the factors were identified and quantified using WoE, LR and WoE–LR ensemble models. The results show that land use/cover, distance to road, sediment transport index (STI) and topographic wetness index (TWI) are the factors that have the most influence on gully occurrence in the catchment. Additionally, the WoE–LR model performed better than the WoE and LR models, producing an AUC value of 0.88, which was higher than that of the WoE model, 0.62 and the LR model, 0.63. Therefore, the WoE–LR ensemble model is useful in gully erosion susceptibility mapping and is of help to decision makers in land-use planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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15 pages, 2589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Loss Estimation Coupling a Modified USLE Model with a Runoff Correction Factor Based on Rainfall and Satellite Soil Moisture Data

by Francesca Todisco, Lorenzo Vergni, Sofia Ortenzi and Lucio Di Matteo

Water 2022, 14(13), 2081; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14132081 - 29 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1874

Abstract

Satellite observations (Copernicus Sentinell-1) can supply antecedent soil moisture data, which helps to predict thresholds triggering runoff and runoff volume. In the paper, we developed a runoff correction factor to the USLE, using rainfall and satellite antecedent soil moisture data, following the approach [...] Read more.

Satellite observations (Copernicus Sentinell-1) can supply antecedent soil moisture data, which helps to predict thresholds triggering runoff and runoff volume. In the paper, we developed a runoff correction factor to the USLE, using rainfall and satellite antecedent soil moisture data, following the approach of the modified USLE models such as the USLE-M and USLE-MM. The runoff and soil loss estimations accuracy are validated by plot-scale measurements (2008–2020 period) provided by SERLAB (Soil Erosion Laboratory) of the University of Perugia. The results show that the event rainfall depth added to the antecedent soil moisture is a fairly suitable predictor of the runoff. Using the simulated runoff in a USLE-MM model, the capability to predict event soil losses is enhanced with an RMSE = 0.57 Mg/ha lower than the RMSE ≈ 3.1 Mg/ha obtained by the USLE model. Using a modified USLE model, albeit with remote estimated runoff data, is still more advantageous at the event scale than the USLE model, which does not consider the runoff. These results are particularly significant for the estimation of runoff and soil losses. Satellite data shows the potential of applying the modified USLE models for large-scale monitoring and quantification of event soil erosion and runoff. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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15 pages, 1975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbiological Properties in Cropping Systems and Their Relationship with Water Erosion in the Brazilian Cerrado

by Marina Neves Merlo, Junior Cesar Avanzi, Lucas de Castro Moreira da Silva, Osnar Obede da Silva Aragão, Emerson Borghi, Fatima Maria de Souza Moreira, Michael Silveira Thebaldi, Álvaro Vilela de Resende, Marx Leandro Naves Silva and Bruno Montoani Silva

Water 2022, 14(4), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14040614 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1927

Abstract

Many researchers have reported relationships of physical and chemical properties with water erosion; however, little is known about microbiological properties in this context. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate soil properties in relation to erosion in areas with different cropping [...] Read more.

Many researchers have reported relationships of physical and chemical properties with water erosion; however, little is known about microbiological properties in this context. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate soil properties in relation to erosion in areas with different cropping system practices under no-tillage in the Brazilian Cerrado. The experiment has been carried out since 2014 in a Typic Haplustox under soybean (S) and maize (M) monoculture, maize/soybean annual rotation (MS), maize/brachiaria/soybean/brachiaria rotation (MBSB), two of those treatments with high input of fertilizer (MBSB-HI and MS-HI), and bare soil (BS). Soil losses were quantified in erosion plots. The design was completely randomized. The greater vegetation cover crop, provided by intercropping/succession with brachiaria, increased microbial biomass carbon. The lack of vegetation cover affected the basal soil respiration and metabolic quotient. Basal soil respiration proved to be inversely related to soil and water losses. Vegetation cover was a key factor regulating water erosion. Penetration resistance and aggregate stability correlated with soil and water losses. Thus, not only physical and chemical, but also biological properties are deeply affected by erosion, aiding in early monitoring of water erosion. Soil quality improvement in ecologically supported management contributes to mitigating erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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19 pages, 7102 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Evaluating the Effects of the Rill Longitudinal Profile on Flow Resistance Law

by Alessio Nicosia, Costanza Di Stefano, Vincenzo Palmeri, Vincenzo Pampalone and Vito Ferro

Water 2022, 14(3), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14030326 - 23 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2210

Abstract

In this paper, for the first time, the effect of the longitudinal profile shape of the rill (uniform, concave, and convex) on flow resistance law was studied. The first part of the paper is based on a theoretical equation to estimate the Darcy–Weisbach [...] Read more.

In this paper, for the first time, the effect of the longitudinal profile shape of the rill (uniform, concave, and convex) on flow resistance law was studied. The first part of the paper is based on a theoretical equation to estimate the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f, deduced from the power velocity distribution and rill measurements performed on a plot. At first, the equation to estimate the Γ parameter of the velocity profile was calibrated using all available measurements. Then an analysis of the hydraulic characteristics at reach scale, for comparable values of discharge, was carried out, comparing the different profile shapes. To assess the influence of the rill profile shape on flow resistance law, this calibration was also carried out using the data categorized by profile. In the second part of the paper, an analysis of the scour depth and eroded rill volume was developed for four rills of each configuration. The results showed that an accurate estimate of f can be obtained by calibrating the flow resistance equation for each profile shape. The component of the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor that is due to the profile shape varied from 0.68 to 14.6% of the overall friction factor for the concave profile, and from 3.4 to 26.9% for the convex profile. The analysis also showed that, for the convex profile, the scour was concentrated downstream of the slope change, while for the uniform and concave profiles, it was uniformly distributed. Furthermore, the scour depth measured in correspondence of the rill thalweg had a generally increasing trend, with discharge for all the investigated profile shapes. Total eroded rill volume of the concave profile was lower than those detected for the uniform and convex profiles and was characterized by a reduction of 57.9%, as compared to the uniform profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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13 pages, 2601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Enhanced Flume Testing Procedure for the Study of Rill Erosion

by Vinícius Naves de Oliveira, Gilson de F. N. Gitirana, Jr., Marcia Maria dos Anjos Mascarenha, Mauricio Martines Sales, Luiz Felipe Ramos Varrone and Marta Pereira da Luz

Water 2021, 13(21), 2956; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13212956 - 20 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2312

Abstract

This paper presents the development and verification of an improved and cost-effective flume apparatus and corresponding testing methodology. A rigorous analysis of the flow conditions during testing was considered and an interpretation of test results was carried out following the premises of the [...] Read more.

This paper presents the development and verification of an improved and cost-effective flume apparatus and corresponding testing methodology. A rigorous analysis of the flow conditions during testing was considered and an interpretation of test results was carried out following the premises of the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) rill erosion model. The apparatus and methodology were verified using statically compacted specimens of a latosol from the central region of Brazil. Tests were performed on samples with void ratios of 1.0 and 1.5 and under variable hydraulic conditions to verify the repeatability and ideal analysis time for the soil loss curves. The soil loss curves presented hyperbolic behavior, with a maximum value that appeared to be randomly behaved, which can be attributed to the complex nature of the erosion processes at later stages. The equipment and testing methodology produced erosion curves with repeatability that were superior with respect to their initial linear and transition portions. Recommendations are made regarding the adequate interpretation of the testing data and the selection of the ideal elapsed time for soil loss analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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Review

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25 pages, 9984 KiB

Open AccessReview

Measurement of Water Soil Erosion at Sparacia Experimental Area (Southern Italy): A Summary of More than Twenty Years of Scientific Activity

by Vincenzo Pampalone, Francesco Giuseppe Carollo, Alessio Nicosia, Vincenzo Palmeri, Costanza Di Stefano, Vincenzo Bagarello and Vito Ferro

Water 2022, 14(12), 1881; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14121881 - 11 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2066

Abstract

The main purpose of this article is to give a general idea of the scientific activity that was carried out starting from the 2000s on the basis of the data collected in the plots installed at the Sparacia experimental station for soil erosion [...] Read more.

The main purpose of this article is to give a general idea of the scientific activity that was carried out starting from the 2000s on the basis of the data collected in the plots installed at the Sparacia experimental station for soil erosion measurement in Sicily, South Italy. The paper includes a presentation of the experimental site, a description of the methods and procedures for measuring soil erosion processes both available in the literature and applied at the Sparacia station (sediment sampling and water level reading in the storage tanks for total erosion measurements; profilometer, and Structure from Motion technique for rill erosion measurements), and the main results obtained in the monitoring period in the experimental site. The latter concern the effects of plot size and steepness on soil loss, the measurement variability, the frequency analysis of soil loss, the rill erosion characterization, and the comparison between rill and interrill erosion rates. Each of these topics is addressed with multi-temporal analyses performed with increasing size of the available database, which allowed to draw robust conclusions. Soil loss did not vary appreciably with plot length in contrast with the assumption made in the USLE/RUSLE. The variability of the measurements of soil loss, runoff volume, and sediment concentration at the event scale in replicated plots decreased as the mean measured value increased. The normalized event soil loss was distributed according to a two-component distribution. A power relationship between rill volumes and lengths was established. The measurements also confirmed the morphological similarity between the channels of the rills and ephemeral gullies described by a power dimensionless relationship. Rill erodibility of the sampled clay soil varied over time, maintaining relatively low values. Finally, rill erosion was dominant relative to interrill erosion, and a more efficient sediment transport system through the rill network occurred as plot steepness increased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion Measurement Techniques and Field Experiments)

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