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13 pages, 2719 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Evolution of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A (H5) in Poultry in Nigeria, 2021–2022

by Clement Meseko, Adelaide Milani, Bitrus Inuwa, Chinonyerem Chinyere, Ismaila Shittu, James Ahmed, Edoardo Giussani, Elisa Palumbo, Bianca Zecchin, Francesco Bonfante, Silvia Maniero, Angélique Angot, Mamadou Niang, Alice Fusaro, Federica Gobbo, Calogero Terregino, Taiwo Olasoju, Isabella Monne and Maryam Muhammad

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1387; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061387 - 17 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2293

Abstract

In 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and global food insecurity, the Nigerian poultry sector was exposed to the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and its economic challenges. Between 2021 and 2022, HPAI caused 467 outbreaks reported in 31 of the 37 administrative [...] Read more.

In 2021, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and global food insecurity, the Nigerian poultry sector was exposed to the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and its economic challenges. Between 2021 and 2022, HPAI caused 467 outbreaks reported in 31 of the 37 administrative regions in Nigeria. In this study, we characterized the genomes of 97 influenza A viruses of the subtypes H5N1, H5N2, and H5N8, which were identified in different agro-ecological zones and farms during the 2021–2022 epidemic. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA genes showed a widespread distribution of the H5Nx clade 2.3.4.4b and similarity with the HPAI H5Nx viruses that have been detected in Europe since late 2020. The topology of the phylogenetic trees indicated the occurrence of several independent introductions of the virus into the country, followed by a regional evolution of the virus that was most probably linked to its persistent circulation in West African territories. Additional evidence of the evolutionary potential of the HPAI viruses circulating in this region is the identification in this study of a putative H5N1/H9N2 reassortant virus in a mixed-species commercial poultry farm. Our data confirm Nigeria as a crucial hotspot for HPAI virus introduction from the Eurasian territories and reveal a dynamic pattern of avian influenza virus evolution within the Nigerian poultry population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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15 pages, 2183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing and Ecological Variables Related to Influenza A Prevalence and Subtype Diversity in Wild Birds in the Lluta Wetland of Northern Chile

by Soledad Ruiz, Pablo Galdames, Cecilia Baumberger, Maria Antonieta Gonzalez, Camila Rojas, Cristobal Oyarzun, Katherinne Orozco, Cristian Mattar, Pamela Freiden, Bridgette Sharp, Stacey Schultz-Cherry, Christopher Hamilton-West and Pedro Jimenez-Bluhm

Viruses 2023, 15(6), 1241; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061241 - 25 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1632

Abstract

The Lluta River is the northernmost coastal wetland in Chile, representing a unique ecosystem and an important source of water in the extremely arid Atacama Desert. During peak season, the wetland is home to more than 150 species of wild birds and is [...] Read more.

The Lluta River is the northernmost coastal wetland in Chile, representing a unique ecosystem and an important source of water in the extremely arid Atacama Desert. During peak season, the wetland is home to more than 150 species of wild birds and is the first stopover point for many migratory species that arrive in the country along the Pacific migratory route, thereby representing a priority site for avian influenza virus (AIV) surveillance in Chile. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of influenza A virus (IAV) in the Lluta River wetland, identify subtype diversity, and evaluate ecological and environmental factors that drive the prevalence at the study site. The wetland was studied and sampled from September 2015 to October 2020. In each visit, fresh fecal samples of wild birds were collected for IAV detection by real-time RT-PCR. Furthermore, a count of wild birds present at the site was performed and environmental variables, such as temperature, rainfall, vegetation coverage (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index—NDVI), and water body size were determined. A generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) was built to assess the association between AIV prevalence and explanatory variables. Influenza positive samples were sequenced, and the host species was determined by barcoding. Of the 4349 samples screened during the study period, overall prevalence in the wetland was 2.07% (95% CI: 1.68 to 2.55) and monthly prevalence of AIV ranged widely from 0% to 8.6%. Several hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) subtypes were identified, and 10 viruses were isolated and sequenced, including low pathogenic H5, H7, and H9 strains. In addition, several reservoir species were recognized (both migratory and resident birds), including the newly identified host Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis). Regarding environmental variables, prevalence of AIV was positively associated with NDVI (OR = 3.65, p < 0.05) and with the abundance of migratory birds (OR = 3.57, p < 0.05). These results emphasize the importance of the Lluta wetland as a gateway to Chile for viruses that come from the Northern Hemisphere and contribute to the understanding of AIV ecological drivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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18 pages, 2414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Characteristics and Phylogeographic Dynamics of Lagoviruses, 1988–2021

by Pir Tariq Shah, Amina Nawal Bahoussi, Caiting Yang, Guanhan Yao, Li Dong, Changxin Wu and Li Xing

Viruses 2023, 15(4), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15040815 - 23 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1926

Abstract

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV), rabbit calicivirus (RCV), and hare calicivirus (HaCV) belong to the genus Lagovirus of the Caliciviridae family that causes severe diseases in rabbits and several hare (Lepus) species. Previously, Lagoviruses were [...] Read more.

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV), rabbit calicivirus (RCV), and hare calicivirus (HaCV) belong to the genus Lagovirus of the Caliciviridae family that causes severe diseases in rabbits and several hare (Lepus) species. Previously, Lagoviruses were classified into two genogroups, e.g., GI (RHDVs and RCVs) and GII (EBHSV and HaCV) based on partial genomes, e.g., VP60 coding sequences. Herein, we provide a robust phylogenetic classification of all the Lagovirus strains based on full-length genomes, grouping all the available 240 strains identified between 1988 and 2021 into four distinct clades, e.g., GI.1 (classical RHDV), GI.2 (RHDV2), HaCV/EBHSV, and RCV, where the GI.1 clade is further classified into four (GI.1a–d) and GI.2 into six sub-clades (GI.2a–f). Moreover, the phylogeographic analysis revealed that the EBHSV and HaCV strains share their ancestor with the GI.1, while the RCV shares with the GI.2. In addition, all 2020–2021 RHDV2 outbreak strains in the USA are connected to the strains from Canada and Germany, while RHDV strains isolated in Australia are connected with the USA-Germany haplotype RHDV strain. Furthermore, we identified six recombination events in the VP60, VP10, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) coding regions using the full-length genomes. The amino acid variability analysis showed that the variability index exceeded the threshold of 1.00 in the ORF1-encoded polyprotein and ORF2-encoded VP10 protein, respectively, indicating significant amino acid drift with the emergence of new strains. The current study is an update of the phylogenetic and phylogeographic information of Lagoviruses that may be used to map the evolutionary history and provide hints for the genetic basis of their emergence and re-emergence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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15 pages, 2192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genotype Diversity, Wild Bird-to-Poultry Transmissions, and Farm-to-Farm Carryover during the Spread of the Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 in the Czech Republic in 2021/2022

by Alexander Nagy, Martina Stará, Lenka Černíková, Lada Hofmannová and Kamil Sedlák

Viruses 2023, 15(2), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/v15020293 - 20 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2271

Abstract

In 2021/2022, the re-emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) occurred in Europe. The outbreak was seeded from two sources: resident and reintroduced viruses, which is unprecedented in the recorded history of avian influenza. The dominant subtype was H5N1, which replaced the H5N8 [...] Read more.

In 2021/2022, the re-emergence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) occurred in Europe. The outbreak was seeded from two sources: resident and reintroduced viruses, which is unprecedented in the recorded history of avian influenza. The dominant subtype was H5N1, which replaced the H5N8 subtype that had predominated in previous seasons. In this study, we present a whole genome sequence and a phylogenetic analysis of 57 H5N1 HPAI and two low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H5N1 strains collected in the Czech Republic during 2021/2022. Phylogenetic analysis revealed close relationships between H5N1 genomes from poultry and wild birds and secondary transmission in commercial geese. The genotyping showed considerable genetic heterogeneity among Czech H5N1 viruses, with six different HPAI genotypes, three of which were apparently unique. In addition, second-order reassortment relationships were observed with the direct involvement of co-circulating H5N1 LPAI strains. The genetic distance between Czech H5N1 HPAI and the closest LPAI segments available in the database illustrates the profound gaps in our knowledge of circulating LPAI strains. The changing dynamics of HPAI in the wild may increase the likelihood of future HPAI outbreaks and present new challenges in poultry management, biosecurity, and surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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12 pages, 877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A South American Mouse Morbillivirus Provides Insight into a Clade of Rodent-Borne Morbilliviruses

by Humberto J. Debat

Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2403; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14112403 - 29 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1478

Abstract

Morbilliviruses are negative-sense single-stranded monosegmented RNA viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae (order Mononegavirales). Morbilliviruses infect diverse mammals including humans, dogs, cats, small ruminants, seals, and cetaceans, which serve as natural hosts. Here, I report the identification and characterization of novel viruses detected [...] Read more.

Morbilliviruses are negative-sense single-stranded monosegmented RNA viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae (order Mononegavirales). Morbilliviruses infect diverse mammals including humans, dogs, cats, small ruminants, seals, and cetaceans, which serve as natural hosts. Here, I report the identification and characterization of novel viruses detected in public RNAseq datasets of South American long-haired and olive field mice. The divergent viruses dubbed Ratón oliváceo morbillivirus (RoMV) detected in renal samples from mice collected from Chile and Argentina are characterized by an unusually large genome including long intergenic regions and the presence of an accessory protein between the F and H genes redounding in a genome architecture consisting in 3′-N-P/V/C-M-F-hp-H-L-5′. Structural and functional annotation, genetic distance, and evolutionary insights suggest that RoMV is a member of a novel species within genus Morbillivirus tentatively named as South American mouse morbillivirus. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that this mouse morbillivirus is closely related to and clusters into a monophyletic group of novel rodent-borne morbilliviruses. This subclade of divergent viruses expands the host range, redefines the genomic organization and provides insights on the evolutionary history of genus Morbillivirus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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10 pages, 1234 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Emergence of a Reassortant 2.3.4.4b Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza Virus Containing H9N2 PA Gene in Burkina Faso, West Africa, in 2021

by Lalidia Bruno Ouoba, Lamouni Habibata-Zerbo, Bianca Zecchin, Giacomo Barbierato, Sandaogo Hamidou-Ouandaogo, Elisa Palumbo, Edoardo Giussani, Alessio Bortolami, Mamadou Niang, Adele Traore-Kam, Calogero Terregino, Mariétou Guitti-Kindo, Angelique Angot, Dominique Guigma, Nicolas Barro, Alice Fusaro and Isabella Monne

Viruses 2022, 14(9), 1901; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14091901 - 27 Aug 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2978

Abstract

Since 2006, the poultry population in Burkina Faso has been seriously hit by different waves of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 epizootics. In December 2021, three distinct regions of Burkina Faso, namely, Gomboussougou, Bonyollo, and Koubri, detected HPAI H5N1 viruses in poultry. [...] Read more.

Since 2006, the poultry population in Burkina Faso has been seriously hit by different waves of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 epizootics. In December 2021, three distinct regions of Burkina Faso, namely, Gomboussougou, Bonyollo, and Koubri, detected HPAI H5N1 viruses in poultry. Whole genome characterization and statistical phylogenetic approaches were applied to shed light on the potential origin of these viruses and estimate the time of virus emergence. Our results revealed that the HPAI H5N1 viruses reported in the three affected regions of Burkina Faso cluster together within clade 2.3.4.4b, and are closely related to HPAI H5N1 viruses identified in Nigeria and Niger in the period 2021–2022, except for the PA gene, which clusters with H9N2 viruses of the zoonotic G1 lineage collected in West Africa between 2017 and 2020. These reassortant viruses possess several mutations that may be associated with an increased zoonotic potential. Although it is difficult to ascertain where and when the reassortment event occurred, the emergence of a H5N1/H9N2 reassortant virus in a vulnerable region, such as West Africa, raises concerns about its possible impact on animal and human health. These findings also highlight the risk that West Africa may become a new hotspot for the emergence of new genotypes of HPAI viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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17 pages, 1406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Connect to Protect: Dynamics and Genetic Connections of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreaks in Poultry from 2016 to 2021 in Germany

by Jacqueline King, Christoph Staubach, Christiane Lüder, Susanne Koethe, Anne Günther, Lina Stacker, Dennis Rubbenstroth, Klaas Dietze, Christian Grund, Franz J. Conraths, Timm Harder, Martin Beer and Anne Pohlmann

Viruses 2022, 14(9), 1849; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14091849 - 23 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2627

Abstract

During autumn/winter in 2016–2017 and 2020–2021, highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) caused severe outbreaks in Germany and Europe. Multiple clade 2.3.4.4b H5 HPAI subtypes were responsible for increased mortality in wild birds and high mortality and massive losses in the poultry sector. [...] Read more.

During autumn/winter in 2016–2017 and 2020–2021, highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) caused severe outbreaks in Germany and Europe. Multiple clade 2.3.4.4b H5 HPAI subtypes were responsible for increased mortality in wild birds and high mortality and massive losses in the poultry sector. To clarify putative entry sources and delineate interconnections between outbreaks in poultry holdings and wild birds, we applied whole-genome sequencing and phylodynamic analyses combined with the results of epidemiological outbreak investigations. Varying outbreak dynamics of the distinct reassortants allowed for the identification of individual, putatively wild bird-mediated entries into backyard holdings, several clusters comprising poultry holdings, local virus circulation for several weeks, direct farm-to-farm transmission and potential reassortment within a turkey holding with subsequent spill-over of the novel reassorted virus into the wild bird population. Whole-genome sequencing allowed for a unique high-resolution molecular epidemiology analysis of HPAIV H5Nx outbreaks and is recommended to be used as a standard tool. The presented detailed account of the genetic, temporal, and geographical characteristics of the recent German HPAI H5Nx situation emphasizes the role of poultry holdings as an important source of novel genetic variants and reassortants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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19 pages, 2213 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Origins and Evolution of Seasonal Human Coronaviruses

by James R. Otieno, Joshua L. Cherry, David J. Spiro, Martha I. Nelson and Nídia S. Trovão

Viruses 2022, 14(7), 1551; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14071551 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3184

Abstract

Four seasonal human coronaviruses (sHCoVs) are endemic globally (229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1), accounting for 5–30% of human respiratory infections. However, the epidemiology and evolution of these CoVs remain understudied due to their association with mild symptomatology. Using a multigene and complete genome [...] Read more.

Four seasonal human coronaviruses (sHCoVs) are endemic globally (229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1), accounting for 5–30% of human respiratory infections. However, the epidemiology and evolution of these CoVs remain understudied due to their association with mild symptomatology. Using a multigene and complete genome analysis approach, we find the evolutionary histories of sHCoVs to be highly complex, owing to frequent recombination of CoVs including within and between sHCoVs, and uncertain, due to the under sampling of non-human viruses. The recombination rate was highest for 229E and OC43 whereas substitutions per recombination event were highest in NL63 and HKU1. Depending on the gene studied, OC43 may have ungulate, canine, or rabbit CoV ancestors. 229E may have origins in a bat, camel, or an unsampled intermediate host. HKU1 had the earliest common ancestor (1809–1899) but fell into two distinct clades (genotypes A and B), possibly representing two independent transmission events from murine-origin CoVs that appear to be a single introduction due to large gaps in the sampling of CoVs in animals. In fact, genotype B was genetically more diverse than all the other sHCoVs. Finally, we found shared amino acid substitutions in multiple proteins along the non-human to sHCoV host-jump branches. The complex evolution of CoVs and their frequent host switches could benefit from continued surveillance of CoVs across non-human hosts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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13 pages, 3665 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Isolation of Genetically Diverse H5N8 Avian Influenza Viruses in Poultry in Egypt, 2019–2021

by Ahmed H. Salaheldin, Ahmed R. Elbestawy, Abdelkader M. Abdelkader, Hesham A. Sultan, Awad A. Ibrahim, Hatem S. Abd El-Hamid and Elsayed M. Abdelwhab

Viruses 2022, 14(7), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14071431 - 29 Jun 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

The global spread of avian influenza virus (AIV) of clade 2.3.4.4b since 2016 has caused severe losses in wild birds and poultry and has posed a risk for the infection of mammals including humans. The vaccination of poultry has been used to limit [...] Read more.

The global spread of avian influenza virus (AIV) of clade 2.3.4.4b since 2016 has caused severe losses in wild birds and poultry and has posed a risk for the infection of mammals including humans. The vaccination of poultry has been used to limit the spread of the virus and mitigate its socioeconomic impact. Here, we describe H5N8 epidemics in chickens, turkeys and ducks from different localities in Egypt from 2019 to 2021. About 41.7% (n = 88/211) flocks were tested positive by RT-qPCR for H5N8 viruses with prevalence rates of 45.1% (n = 65/144) and 34.3% (n = 23/67) in vaccinated and non-vaccinated flocks, respectively. A sequence analysis of the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes indicated not only the multiple introduction events of H5N8 viruses in Egypt but also the establishment of endemic viruses in commercial poultry in 2020/2021. The recent H5N8 viruses in poultry in Egypt are genetically distinct from the majority of licensed vaccines used in the field. Together, our findings indicate that poultry in Egypt is an endemic center for clade 2.3.4.4b in the Middle East. The efficiency of current vaccines should be regularly evaluated and updated to fully protect poultry flocks in Egypt against H5N8 viruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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12 pages, 2748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Analysis of Caprine Enterovirus Circulating in China during 2016–2021: Evolutionary Significance

by Xiaoran Chang, Qian Lin, Qun Zhang, Junying Hu, Gulbahar Tursun, Yingrui Deng, Chunguang Guo and Xinping Wang

Viruses 2022, 14(5), 1051; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14051051 - 15 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1863

Abstract

Here, we report the characterization of 13 novel caprine/ovine enterovirus strains isolated from different regions in China during 2016–2021. Immunoperoxidase monolayer assay showed that these viral strains shared strong cross-reaction with the previously reported caprine enterovirus CEV-JL14. Alignment analysis of the complete nucleotide [...] Read more.

Here, we report the characterization of 13 novel caprine/ovine enterovirus strains isolated from different regions in China during 2016–2021. Immunoperoxidase monolayer assay showed that these viral strains shared strong cross-reaction with the previously reported caprine enterovirus CEV-JL14. Alignment analysis of the complete nucleotide sequences revealed 79.2%–87.8% and 75.0%–76.7% sequence identity of these novel caprine enterovirus strains to CEV-JL14 and TB4-OEV, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses clustered these novel strains to EV-G based on the amino acid sequences of P1 and 2C+3CD. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis of these caprine enterovirus strains identified three new EV-G types using VP1 sequences. These results demonstrate the genetic variations and the evolution of caprine enterovirus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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10 pages, 1964 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Evolution of Animal South American RVA Told by the NSP4 Gene E12 Genotype

by Samuel Orlando Miño, Alejandra Badaracco, Enrique Louge Uriarte, Max Ciarlet and Viviana Parreño

Viruses 2022, 14(11), 2506; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14112506 - 12 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1343

Abstract

Rotavirus A (RVA) possesses a genome of 11 double-stranded (ds) RNA segments, and each segment encodes one protein, with the exception of segment 11. NSP4 is a non-structural multifunctional protein encoded by segment 10 that defines the E-genotype. From the 31 E-genotypes described, [...] Read more.

Rotavirus A (RVA) possesses a genome of 11 double-stranded (ds) RNA segments, and each segment encodes one protein, with the exception of segment 11. NSP4 is a non-structural multifunctional protein encoded by segment 10 that defines the E-genotype. From the 31 E-genotypes described, genotype E12 has been described in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil in RVA strains infecting different animal species and humans. In this work, we studied the evolutionary relationships of RVA strains carrying the E12 genotype in South America using phylogenetic and phylodynamic approaches. We found that the E12 genotype has a South American origin, with a guanaco (Lama guanicoe) strain as natural host. Interestingly, all the other reported RVA strains carrying the E12 genotype in equine, bovine, caprine, and human strains are related to RVA strains of camelid origin. The evolutionary path and genetic footprint of the E12 genotype were reconstructed starting with the introduction of non-native livestock species into the American continent with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The imported animal species were in close contact with South American camelids, and the offspring were exposed to the native RVA strains brought from Europe and the new RVA circulating in guanacos, resulting in the emergence of new RVA strains in the current lineages’ strongly species-specific adaption. In conclusion, we proposed the NSP4 E12 genotype as a genetic geographic marker in the RVA strains circulating in different animal species in South America. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drivers of Evolution of Animal RNA Viruses, Volume II)

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