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Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development

A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Resources and Sustainable Utilization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 1 July 2024 | Viewed by 34939

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Zhongke Feng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Forestry, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100091, China
Interests: forest management; cartography and geographic information systems; remote sensing; forestry equipment and informatization; ecology and environmental biology
Prof. Dr. Zixuan Qiu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Sanya Nanfan Research Institute, Hainan University, Sanya 572022, China
Interests: forest resource informatics; plant phenomics; cartography and geographic information systems; remote sensing; ecology and environmental biology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

At the macro level, forest and plant resources management mainly includes forest investigation and monitoring, forest and urban forestry spatial planning, forest harvesting and utilization, etc., which mainly focuses on ecological security, wood production and forest plant functional benefits in various countries around the world. On the micro level, research on the sustainable management of forest and plant resources is mainly conducted to determine how to optimize the forest structure and maximize the output—that is, how to maximize the growth of wood. The sustainable management of forest structure is mainly related to the optimization and maximization of forest mingling, forest density and forest growth. This Special Issue aims to address but is not limited to the following topics:

  • Optimal planning and design of forest coverage and forest age structure in different countries and regions.
  • Simulation analysis of forest vegetation growth processes—that is, the quantitative relationship between the growth of forest vegetation and environmental conditions.
  • Statistical analysis of mixed uneven-aged forest density distribution in different time and space, including statistical analysis of forest maximum density.
  • Planting and sustainable forest management of mixed uneven-aged forest on non-forestland.
  • Sustainable forest management by transforming artificial pure forest into mixed uneven-aged forest.
  • Statistical analysis of forest biomass, carbon storage and carbon sink.
  • Other relevant research that lays the foundation for sustainable forest management (forest and plant resource investigation and monitoring, forest and urban forestry spatial planning, forest harvesting and utilization, etc.).

Prof. Dr. Zhongke Feng
Prof. Dr. Zixuan Qiu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • sustainable forest management
  • planting mixed uneven-aged forest
  • forest biomass, carbon storage and carbon sink
  • forest investigation and monitoring
  • forest and urban forestry spatial planning
  • forest harvesting and utilization
  • forest vegetation growth process simulation
  • forest vegetation growth and environment

Published Papers (23 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 5169 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Spatio-Temporal Changes in Anthropogenic Disturbances on Landscape Patterns in the Nandu River Basin, China
by Mingjiang Mao, Lingyan Wei, Wenfeng Gong, Genghong Wu and Tiedong Liu
Sustainability 2024, 16(7), 2724; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16072724 - 26 Mar 2024
Viewed by 371
Abstract
We explored the characteristics of landscape pattern (LP) changes in the Nandu River Basin (NRB) and its dynamic response mechanism to anthropogenic disturbance (AD). This is important for ecological protection and for land use decision-making in the basin in the context of the [...] Read more.
We explored the characteristics of landscape pattern (LP) changes in the Nandu River Basin (NRB) and its dynamic response mechanism to anthropogenic disturbance (AD). This is important for ecological protection and for land use decision-making in the basin in the context of the construction of a free trade port. Land use and land cover change (LULCC) data of 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 were analyzed with the help of the LP index, moving window method, hemeroby index, geo-information atlas, and geographic information system (GIS) spatial analysis to reveal the dynamic changes in LP characteristics in the NRB. Furthermore, this paper discusses into the correlation between LP and AD. The results indicate that over the past three decades, the NRB showed a staggered LP, dominated by forestland and cropland, whose total area has decreased by 25.27 km2 and 62.75 km2, respectively. On the other hand, the built-up land increased by 91.37%. The overall landscape fragmentation, landscape patch homogeneity, and landscape diversity have increased in the NRB. AD is the main reason for the dramatic changes in the LP of urban agglomerations centered in Haikou city. The area of minor disturbance (over 34%) occupies the largest proportion of the land, followed by higher (about 13~25%) and moderate disturbances (about 17~22%). The area of minor and strong disturbances has increased significantly, whereas those of moderate and higher disturbances have significantly decreased. The spatial distribution pattern of AD is gradually increasing from the southwest (natural landscape) to the northeast (human landscape). A transition in areas of low disturbance levels to higher levels is obvious. The area of the atlas that has transitioned from “minor → lighter disturbance (12)” and “higher → minor disturbance (41)” changed changed most significantly during 2000 to 2010 and from 2010 to 2020, occupying 26.79% and 11.99% of the transfer atlas, respectively. All regions encountering disturbances were significantly correlated with the largest patch index (LPI) from 1990 to 2020. The overall AD in the NRB has increased, especially in Haikou. Urbanization is the main factor for an increase in AD. The ecological and environmental management and monitoring in the basin need to be strengthened. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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22 pages, 6457 KiB  
Article
Carbon Storage Estimation of Quercus aquifolioides Based on GEDI Spaceborne LiDAR Data and Landsat 9 Images in Shangri-La
by Li Xu, Hongyan Lai, Jinge Yu, Shaolong Luo, Chaosheng Guo, Yingqun Gao, Wenwu Zhou, Shuwei Wang and Qingtai Shu
Sustainability 2023, 15(15), 11525; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511525 - 25 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1319
Abstract
The assessment of forest carbon storage plays a crucial role in forest management and ecosystem exploration, enabling the evaluation of forest quality, resources, carbon cycle and management. The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) satellite provides a means to accurately measure these various forest [...] Read more.
The assessment of forest carbon storage plays a crucial role in forest management and ecosystem exploration, enabling the evaluation of forest quality, resources, carbon cycle and management. The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) satellite provides a means to accurately measure these various forest vertical structure parameters by penetrating the forest canopy. However, the distribution of the footprint along the orbit track is heterogeneous and discontinuous, preventing the acquisition of spatially distributed carbon storage formation at the county level. Consequently, this study integrated GEDI and Landsat 9 data to estimate Quercus aquifolioides carbon storage in Shangri-La. By applying the Kriging interpolation to previously pretreated footprints, surface information from the GEDI L2B footprints was obtained. At the same time, Landsat 9 vegetation indices and band reflectance were extracted to analyze the correlation with the carbon storage of Quercus aquifolioides samples. Then, three methods (support vector machine, bagging, and random forest) were used to create a carbon storage estimation model for Shangri-La. The research results showed that (1) among the models for the selection of GEDI footprint parameters based on semi-variance, the optimal model of the digital_elevation_model was the spherical model, while the best model of percentage tree cover from the MODIS data (modis_treecover) and the foliage height diversity index (fhd_normal) was the exponential model. (2) Analyzing the thirty-three extracted independent variable factors correlated with the carbon storage of Quercus aquifolioides showed that the top five variables with the highest correlation were digital_elevation_model, modis_treecover, fhd_normal, DEM, and band 1 (B1). (3) After variable selection, the R2 = 0.82 and RMSE = 11.92 t/hm2 values of the Quercus aquifolioides carbon storage estimation model established via random forest were obtained, and its evaluation precision was superior to that of the support vector machine method and bagging regression. The carbon storage of Quercus aquifolioides was primarily in the range of 8.22~94.63 t/hm2, and the mean value was 42.44 t/hm2, while the total carbon storage was about 5,374,137.62 t. The findings from this paper illustrated the feasibility of obtaining carbon storage data on a county scale by combining GEDI LiDAR data with Landsat 9 optical data. The results also suggested a new perspective for combining GEDI L2B data with other remote sensing images to estimate other forest structure parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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12 pages, 1638 KiB  
Article
Forest Carbon Sequestration Potential in China under Different SSP-RCP Scenarios
by Jieming Chou, Yidan Hao, Yuan Xu, Weixing Zhao, Yuanmeng Li and Haofeng Jin
Sustainability 2023, 15(9), 7275; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097275 - 27 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1292
Abstract
The estimation of forest carbon sequestration and its economic value as a carbon sink are important elements of global carbon cycle research. In this study, based on the predicted forestland changes under the future shared socioeconomic pathways SSP1-RCP2.6, SSP2-RCP4.5, and SSP5-RCP8.5, the growth [...] Read more.
The estimation of forest carbon sequestration and its economic value as a carbon sink are important elements of global carbon cycle research. In this study, based on the predicted forestland changes under the future shared socioeconomic pathways SSP1-RCP2.6, SSP2-RCP4.5, and SSP5-RCP8.5, the growth equations of different tree species were fitted using forest inventory data, and the biomass conversion factor continuum function method was used to estimate forest vegetation carbon fixation at the national scale. The carbon sink potential of the forest ecosystems in 2020–2100 was estimated under the three scenarios. Under the three social scenarios, the fixed amount of forest carbon in China exhibits a significant upward trend. Forest area increases the most, and carbon sequestration increases the most rapidly under SSP1-RCP2.6. The carbon sequestration level in Southwest China is higher than in other parts of the country, and those in Northwest and East China are lower than the national average. In order to continuously improve the carbon sequestration capacity of terrestrial ecosystem resources in China, the following actions are recommended: strengthen the protection projects of natural forests in various regions, improve the level of forest management, and gradually achieve the goal of carbon neutrality in China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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14 pages, 3586 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Biomass Dynamics and Allocation in Chinese Fir Trees Using Tree Ring Analysis in Hunan Province, China
by Xiaojun Xu, Fengfeng Ma, Kangying Lu, Baoqi Zhu, Shuaichen Li, Kangqi Liu, Qianmin Chen, Qingfen Li and Cheng Deng
Sustainability 2023, 15(4), 3306; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043306 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1355
Abstract
Studying tree biomass dynamics and allocation is crucial to understanding the forest carbon cycle and the adaptation of trees to the environment. However, traditional biomass surveys are time-consuming and labor-intensive, so few studies have specifically examined biomass formation in terms of the increase [...] Read more.
Studying tree biomass dynamics and allocation is crucial to understanding the forest carbon cycle and the adaptation of trees to the environment. However, traditional biomass surveys are time-consuming and labor-intensive, so few studies have specifically examined biomass formation in terms of the increase in individual tree biomass, and the role that tree age and site conditions play in this process, especially tree roots, is unclear. We studied the tree ring characteristics of 87 sample trees (8–40 years old) from 29 Chinese fir plantations with different site conditions and measured the biomass of their stems, crowns, and roots. The biomass increment at various age stages during tree growth was determined via using tree ring analysis, and a generalized additive mixed model (GAMM) was used to analyze biomass formation and allocation, as well as the specific impact of site conditions on them. The results showed that the biomass increment of Chinese fir trees first increased and then decreased with age, and improving site conditions delayed the carbon maturation of the trees. The proportion of stem biomass increased with age, while the proportion of crown biomass decreased and the proportion of root biomass increased and then decreased. The effect of the site conditions on the tree biomass allocation showed a nonlinear trend. Tree ring analysis provides a feasible and effective method for assessing tree growth and biomass dynamics. Forest managers can use the findings of this study to scientifically optimize the management of increasing forest carbon sequestration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 4499 KiB  
Article
An Effective Precision Afforestation System for UAV
by Haiyang Liu, Zhuo Chen, Zhiliang Wang and Jian Li
Sustainability 2023, 15(3), 2212; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032212 - 25 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2036
Abstract
Much agricultural and forestry land in the world cannot be accessed by ground planting equipment because of traffic, terrain, and other factors. This not only causes low efficiency and waste of resources, but also has a negative impact on the sustainable development of [...] Read more.
Much agricultural and forestry land in the world cannot be accessed by ground planting equipment because of traffic, terrain, and other factors. This not only causes low efficiency and waste of resources, but also has a negative impact on the sustainable development of forestry. Therefore, it is significant to develop an accurate, efficient, and energy-saving aerial precision seeding system using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology to meet the actual needs of forestry planting. In this study, a UAV precision afforestation system with a GUI, afforestation UAV, positioning system, and information interaction system were developed using related approaches such as electronic information technology. The UAV airborne seeding device added a control circuit and electronic chip to control the launching speed of the cylinder and seed loading speed, while the UAV flight speed is jointly controlled to accurately control the UAV seeding depth and seed spacing. The experimental results showed that the maximum seeding depth of the afforestation equipment was 6.7 cm. At the same seed launching speed, the smaller the content of sand and gravel in the soil, the higher the sowing qualification index, and the greater the sowing depth. The average absolute error of dynamic route RTK-automatic control seeding position accuracy was 7.6 cm, and the average error of static position hovering seeding was 7.7 cm. Resulting from the separate sown experiments of three crops, the sowing pitch angle of 75° gave the highest germination rate. The UAV seeding device has a low missing seed index and a qualified seeding index of more than 95% at 120 r/min seeding speed. The seeding device studied in this paper has a good seeding effect, can meet the requirements of afforestation, and provides a new technical means for managing forest and plant resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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15 pages, 3463 KiB  
Article
Plot-Scale Runoff Generation and Sediment Loss on Different Forest and Other Land Floors at a Karst Yellow Soil Region in Southwest China
by Ruiwen Peng, Han Deng, Ruoshuang Li, Yiqiu Li, Guangbin Yang and Ou Deng
Sustainability 2023, 15(1), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010057 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 889
Abstract
Yellow soils developed in limestone weathering materials are representative on Guizhou Plateau, Southwest China. As one of the most important cultivated soils in Guizhou Province, karst yellow soils are generally thin and can be significantly damaged by mild soil erosion. This work used [...] Read more.
Yellow soils developed in limestone weathering materials are representative on Guizhou Plateau, Southwest China. As one of the most important cultivated soils in Guizhou Province, karst yellow soils are generally thin and can be significantly damaged by mild soil erosion. This work used the structural equation model (SEM) to analyze the influence of various factors on runoff generation and sediment loss based on a long time series (2015–2020) of natural rainfall-runoff data and soil erosion data collected from 18 runoff plots in the karst yellow soil region of Southwest China, which reflects the erosion dynamics under natural conditions. Slope runoff plots are the most popular and efficient way to collect data on runoff generation and soil erosion. The findings show that: (1) There were 139 rainfall-runoff occurrences between 2015 and 2020, with moderate rain (10–25 mm) and heavy rain (25–50 mm) events making up the majority. Due to its high frequency and prolonged duration, heavy rain had the greatest impact on the overall rainfall erosivity R value (R). (2) Mean surface runoff (SR) values ranged from 17.37 mm to 133.90 mm, while mean sediment loss rates (SLR) ranged from 1.36 t·ha−1·a−1 to 23.49 t·ha−1·a−1. SR and SLR can be successfully reduced by the forest floor. Broadleaf forest, coniferous forest, mixed forest, and orchard had mean SR values of 19.33%, 12.97%, 16.10%, and 33.38% of fallow land, respectively, and had mean SLR values of 6.90%, 5.79%, 6.34%, and 12.64% of fallow land, respectively. (3) SR generation at the plot scale was substantially linked with 30-min maximum rainfall intensity (I30), while vegetation coverage (VC) and antecedent soil water content (ASW) showed negative direct inference on SR and runoff sediment concentration (RSC) according to SEM analysis. The VC and ASW showed the highest indirect impact on SLR. This study will serve as a scientific reference for the water and soil erosion management in karst yellow soil region and serve as a scientific guidance for regional land use in Southwest China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 5261 KiB  
Article
Development and Testing of a New UWB Positioning Measurement Tool to Assist in Forest Surveys
by Ziyu Zhao, Zhongke Feng, Jiali Liu and Yuan Wang
Sustainability 2022, 14(24), 17042; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142417042 - 19 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1497
Abstract
Forest resource inventory is a significant part of the sustainable management of forest ecosystems. Finding methods to accurately estimate the diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height and tree position is a significant part of forest resource inventory. The traditional methods of forest [...] Read more.
Forest resource inventory is a significant part of the sustainable management of forest ecosystems. Finding methods to accurately estimate the diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height and tree position is a significant part of forest resource inventory. The traditional methods of forest resource inventory are expensive, difficult, laborious and time-consuming; the existing systems are not convenient to carry, resulting in low working efficiency. In addition, it is usually necessary to rely on a forest compass, DBH taper and RTK or handheld GPS to set up the plot. These instruments each have a single function and cannot achieve accurate positioning under the forest canopy. Therefore, it is necessary to update the existing equipment and technology. This study aimed to design. a multi-functional, high-precision, real-time. positioning intelligent tree-measuring instrument that integrates plot the set-up, DBH measurement, tree height measurement and tree position measurement. The instrument is based on the ultra-wideband positioning principle, sensor technology, image processing technology, trigonometric functions, tree surveying and other related theories and realizes the functions of plot set-up, tree position measurement, DBH measurement, tree height measurement and other functions. The device was tested in four square plots. The results showed that the root mean squared. error (RMSE). of the tree position estimates ranged from 0.07 m to 0.16 m, while the relative root mean squared error (rRMSE) of the DBH estimates of individual trees ranged from 3.01 to 6.43%, which is acceptable for practical applications in traditional forest inventory. The rRMSE of the tree height estimates ranged from 3.47 to 5.21%. Furthermore, the cost of this instrument is only about one-third that of traditional forestry survey tools, while the work efficiency is three times that of the traditional measurement methods. Overall, the results confirmed that the tree measuring instrument is a practical tool for obtaining. accurate measurements of the tree position, DBH and tree height for forest inventories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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25 pages, 2233 KiB  
Article
Stoichiometric Characteristics of Leaf, Litter and Soil during Vegetation Succession in Maolan National Nature Reserve, Guizhou, China
by Peng Wu, Hua Zhou, Yingchun Cui, Wenjun Zhao, Yiju Hou, Chengjiang Tan, Guangneng Yang and Fangjun Ding
Sustainability 2022, 14(24), 16517; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416517 - 09 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1519
Abstract
Carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the main nutrient elements widely found in soil, litter and leaves, and their stoichiometric ratios are important indicators of ecosystem functions. However, there is little research on the effects that nutrient cycle and [...] Read more.
Carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the main nutrient elements widely found in soil, litter and leaves, and their stoichiometric ratios are important indicators of ecosystem functions. However, there is little research on the effects that nutrient cycle and vegetation succession have on leaf, litter and soil nutrients and stoichiometric ratios, especially in the fragile karst areas. To reveal the nutrient cycling characteristics and ecosystem stability mechanism during vegetation succession, leaf, litter and soil samples were collected from the herbaceous community (HC), shrub community (SC), secondary forest community (SF) and primary forest community (PF) in a typical karst area at growth and senescence phases. The results showed that the nutrient contents and stoichiometric ratios of leaf, litter and soil in the main layers of each community were significantly different at the growth and senescence phase. The utilization efficiency of N in the leaves of the main layers of each succession community first decreased and then increased at different growth stages, and the utilization efficiency of P increased but the reabsorption rates of N and P showed a continuous decreasing trend. In addition, there was a significant allometric relationship between N and P contents in plant leaves during the growth phase. More importantly, the internal stability of N content in plant leaves was higher than the P content, suggesting that vegetation succession significantly affected leaf, litter and soil nutrient contents and their stoichiometric ratios in our study region. The strength of the relationship between them reflects the inheritance and co–variation of nutrient content to a certain extent, and the differences in the strategies that different species in the community use to adapt to the fragile karst environment. This study concludes that plants in the karst region mainly improve their P utilization efficiency to adapt to low phosphorus stress in soil and ensure the normal physiological and biochemical responses in the process of vegetation succession. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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15 pages, 286 KiB  
Article
Farmers’ Perception of Tourism in Sustainable Development of Forests and Their Decisions in China: The Sustainability of the Prism Model and SEM Model
by Xiafang Hong and Cheng He
Sustainability 2022, 14(24), 16324; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416324 - 07 Dec 2022
Viewed by 1333
Abstract
The sustainable development of forests involves a combination of environmental protection and economics. Ecotourism is a new and growing sustainable economic model for forests, compared with the traditional utilization and protection of forests. The purpose of this study was to explore the applicability [...] Read more.
The sustainable development of forests involves a combination of environmental protection and economics. Ecotourism is a new and growing sustainable economic model for forests, compared with the traditional utilization and protection of forests. The purpose of this study was to explore the applicability of the Prism model and SEM model in seeking to understand farmers’ perceptions and decision-making regarding tourism, so as to fully understand farmers’ thinking and behavior around forest tourism, and to truly make them in harmony with the sustainable development of forests. In this study, based on a field investigation of 392 farmers living in 11 national forest parks in Jiangxi Province, China, three hypotheses were constructed using the SEM model; and then six first-level indicators and 15 s-level indicators were constructed based on the Prism model, to verify the cognition and influencing factors for farmers, regarding sustainable forest tourism. The results showed that (1) the formation process of farmers’ willingness to adapt to forest tourism follows the path of “individual cognition → individual behavior”. (2) Economic influences, social culture, environmental cognition, and institutional cognition all have significant positive effects on their adaptive willingness. (3) Farmers’ cognition of economic life, environmental protection, and social culture lead to significant differences in their cognition and adaptability to forest tourism. These findings highlight the importance of the perceived value of tourism in assessing how tourism develops, as well as whether it is sustainable for the forest and its impacts. This study provides a better understanding of the factors that influence farmers’ attitudes towards tourism and highlights the importance of valuing local communities as important players in sustainable development, especially as this boosts the economy in forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
27 pages, 9778 KiB  
Article
Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation and Response to Climate Change Based on Remote Sensing Data
by Yingchang Li, Mingyang Li and Yuehui Wang
Sustainability 2022, 14(21), 14222; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114222 - 31 Oct 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2324
Abstract
As the largest and most important natural terrestrial ecosystem, forest plays a crucial role in reducing the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mitigating global warming, maintaining the global ecological balance, and promoting global biological evolution and community succession. The accurate and [...] Read more.
As the largest and most important natural terrestrial ecosystem, forest plays a crucial role in reducing the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mitigating global warming, maintaining the global ecological balance, and promoting global biological evolution and community succession. The accurate and rapid assessment of forest biomass is highly significant for estimating the regional carbon budget and monitoring forest change. In this study, Landsat images and China’s National Forest Continuous Inventory data of 1999, 2004, 2009, and 2014 were used to establish extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) models for forest aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation based on forest type in the Xiangjiang River Basin, Hunan Province, China. Kriging interpolation of the AGB residuals was used to correct the error of AGB estimation. Then, a new XGBoost model was established using the final corrected AGB maps and climate data to estimate the AGB under different climate scenarios during the 2050s and 2070s. The results indicated that AGB estimation using the XGBoost model with correction via Kriging interpolation of the AGB residuals can significantly improve the accuracy of AGB estimation. The total AGB of the study area increased over time from 1999 to 2014, indicating that the forest quality improved in the study area. Under the different climate scenarios, the total AGB during the 2050s and 2070s was predicted to decline continuously with increasing of greenhouse gas emissions, indicating that greenhouse gas emissions have a negative impact on forest growth. The results of this study can provide data support for evaluating the ecological function and value of forest ecosystems, and for formulating reasonable forest management measures to mitigate the effects of climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 3428 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Spatial-Temporal Changes of Landscape Ecological Risk in Xishuangbanna, China from 1990 to 2019
by Yun Liu, Weiheng Xu, Zehu Hong, Leiguang Wang, Guanglong Ou and Ning Lu
Sustainability 2022, 14(17), 10645; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710645 - 26 Aug 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1471
Abstract
Xishuangbanna is a major natural rubber and tea production base in China and a national nature reserve with the best-preserved tropical ecosystem. However, the extensive exploitation and use of land resources impact the land use/land cover (LULC) and the processes of regional landscape [...] Read more.
Xishuangbanna is a major natural rubber and tea production base in China and a national nature reserve with the best-preserved tropical ecosystem. However, the extensive exploitation and use of land resources impact the land use/land cover (LULC) and the processes of regional landscape ecology, further causing a battery of ecological and environmental problems. It is necessary to evaluate landscape ecological risk objectively and quantitatively for improving the ecological environment and maintaining ecological balance. First, this study selected China Land Cover Dataset (CLCD) to analyze the changes in LULC. Second, we constructed the landscape ecological risk index (ERI) using LULC changes based on Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. Third, the spatial-temporal pattern and spatial autocorrelation of landscape ecological risk were assessed in our study area. The results showed that the significant change in LULC was that the areas of cropland increased, and the areas of forests decreased during 1990–2019; the forests of a total area of 859.93 km2 were transferred to croplands. The landscape ecological risk kept a low and stable level from 1990 to 2019, more than 75% of the study area remained at the lower or lowest risk level, and in about 70% of the total study area, the ERI level maintained stability. In addition, the landscape ecological risk of the Xishuangbanna increased during 1990–2010 and decreased during 2010–2019. The ecological risk was a significant spatial autocorrelation and has been an aggregation trend in space from 1990 to 2019. Our research can identify key risk areas and provide a reference for the management and sustainable use of land resources, which promotes the understanding of landscape ecological risk and sustainable development of the ecological environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 4060 KiB  
Article
Research on Accurate Estimation Method of Eucalyptus Biomass Based on Airborne LiDAR Data and Aerial Images
by Yiran Li, Ruirui Wang, Wei Shi, Qiang Yu, Xiuting Li and Xingwang Chen
Sustainability 2022, 14(17), 10576; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710576 - 25 Aug 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1315
Abstract
Forest biomass is a key index to comprehend the changes of ecosystem productivity and forest growth and development. Accurate acquisition of single tree scale biomass information is of great significance to the protection, management and monitoring of forest resources. LiDAR technology can penetrate [...] Read more.
Forest biomass is a key index to comprehend the changes of ecosystem productivity and forest growth and development. Accurate acquisition of single tree scale biomass information is of great significance to the protection, management and monitoring of forest resources. LiDAR technology can penetrate the forest canopy and obtain information on the vertical structure of the forest. Aerial photography technology has the advantages of low cost and high speed, and can obtain information on the horizontal structure of the forest. Therefore, in this study, multispectral imagery and LiDAR data were integrated, and a part of the Zengcheng Forest Farm in Guangdong Province was selected as the study area. Large-scale and high-precision Eucalyptus biomass estimation research was gradually carried out by screening influencing factors and establishing models. This study compared and analysed the performance of multiple stepwise regression methods, random forest algorithms, support vector machine algorithms and decision tree algorithms for Eucalyptus biomass estimation to determine the best method for Eucalyptus biomass estimation. The results demonstrated that the accuracy of the model established by the machine learning method was higher than that of the linear regression model, and in the machine learning model, the random forest model had the best performance on both the training set (R2 = 0.9346, RMSE = 8.8399) and the test set (R2 = 0.8670, RMSE = 15.0377). RF was more suitable for the biomass estimation of Eucalyptus in this study. The spatial resolution of Eucalyptus biomass distribution was 0.05 m in this study, which had higher accuracy and was more accurate. It can provide data reference for the details about biomass distribution of Eucalyptus in the majority of provinces, and has certain practical reference significance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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8 pages, 780 KiB  
Article
Effects of Prescribed Fire on Meadow Soil Chemical Properties in Nanwenghe Nature Reserve
by Kezhen Liu, Lifu Shu and Cheng He
Sustainability 2022, 14(16), 9984; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14169984 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1088
Abstract
The Nanwenghe Nature Reserve is located in the Daxing’anling forest region, which is abundant meadow resource which is prone to fire in fire season every year. In this paper, the change in the soil chemical properties of burned stands was emphasized. The results [...] Read more.
The Nanwenghe Nature Reserve is located in the Daxing’anling forest region, which is abundant meadow resource which is prone to fire in fire season every year. In this paper, the change in the soil chemical properties of burned stands was emphasized. The results showed that: (1) Soil organic matter (SOM) concentration in burned stands showed an extremely significant difference from that in the control stands (p < 0.01). Alkali-hydrolysable N, available K and total N in the burned stands were significantly lower than those in the control stands (p < 0.05). (2) Total P, total K, pH and available P in the burned stands were not significantly different from the concentrations in the control stands (p > 0.05). (3) Available K, total N, total P and total K concentration showed no significant difference from June to September. The pH values increased with a variance of 8%, and pH values in July, August and September were significantly different from those in June. SOM concentrations obtained in July, August and September increased significantly, compared to the concentrations in June (p < 0.05). Alkali-hydrolysable N showed a decreasing trend for all conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 2386 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Forest Ecosystem Climate Regulation Service Based on Actual Evapotranspiration of New Urban Areas in Guanshanhu District, Guiyang, Guizhou Province, China
by Ou Deng, Yiqiu Li, Ruoshuang Li and Guangbin Yang
Sustainability 2022, 14(16), 10022; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610022 - 12 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1290
Abstract
Suburban forest ecosystems have a great influence on local climate, especially for mitigating urban heat island effects and dry island effects. To quantify the climate regulation value of forest ecosystem, and provide a reference for regional ecosystem accounting and scientific land management, a [...] Read more.
Suburban forest ecosystems have a great influence on local climate, especially for mitigating urban heat island effects and dry island effects. To quantify the climate regulation value of forest ecosystem, and provide a reference for regional ecosystem accounting and scientific land management, a new estimation method based on actual evapotranspiration (AET) is proposed and applied in this work. Based on remote sensing, meteorological, and soil data in the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, the annual AET of the forest ecosystem and its dynamic changes were calculated in the new urban area, Guanshanhu District, Guiyang, Guizhou Province, SW China. The climate regulation value is derived from differences in the annual AET of forest ecosystems relative to impervious surfaces. The results showed that: (1) the area of forest ecosystem in Guanshanhu District increased from 2000 to 2010 as a result of ecological engineering but decreased from 2010 to 2020 due to the establishment and expansion of the new urban area, while the area of the impervious surface increased rapidly; (2) the differences in annual AET of forest ecosystem relative to the impervious surface were calculated and subdivided according to different forest types. In 2000, 2010, and 2020, coniferous forests contributed the most to the annual AET difference, followed by coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests, broad-leaved forests, shrubs, and other forests, respectively; (3) the total climate regulation value of forest ecosystem showed an increasing trend, on the whole, the estimation results were ¥8.78 × 108 in 2000, ¥12.62 × 108 in 2010, and ¥14.75 × 108 in 2020; (4) The average per unit area climate regulation value of all types of forests in the area, based on electricity price in the year 2000, was ¥8.06 × 104/ha in 2000, ¥8.11 × 104/ha in 2010, and ¥10.58 × 104/ha in 2020, the highest portion of per unit area climate regulation value was of coniferous forest, as ¥8.59 × 104/ha in 2000, ¥9.28 × 104/ha in 2010, and ¥11.05 × 104/ha in 2020. This study is a beneficial exploration of forest ecosystem climate regulation value estimation in Guanshanhu District, and the results can provide references for ecological construction in new urban areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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15 pages, 3858 KiB  
Article
Disentangling the Factors That Contribute to the Growth of Betula spp. and Cunninghami lanceolata in China Based on Machine Learning Algorithms
by Hanyue Zhang, Zhongke Feng, Shan Wang and Wenxu Ji
Sustainability 2022, 14(14), 8346; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148346 - 07 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1446
Abstract
Forests are indispensable materials and spiritual foundations for promoting ecosystem circulation and human survival. Exploring the environmental impact mechanism on individual-tree growth is of great significance. In this study, the effects of biogeoclimate, competition, and topography on the growth of Betula spp. and [...] Read more.
Forests are indispensable materials and spiritual foundations for promoting ecosystem circulation and human survival. Exploring the environmental impact mechanism on individual-tree growth is of great significance. In this study, the effects of biogeoclimate, competition, and topography on the growth of Betula spp. and Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook., two tree species with high importance value in China, were explored by gradient boosting regression tree (GBRT), k-nearest neighbor (KNN), and random forest (RF) machine learning (ML) algorithms. The results showed that the accuracy of RF was better than KNN, which was better than GBRT. All ML algorithms performed well for future diameter at breast height (DBH) predictions; the Willmott’s indexes of agreement (WIA) of each ML algorithm in predicting the future DBH were all higher than 0.97, and the R2 was higher than 0.98 and 0.90, respectively. The individual tree annual growth rate is mainly affected by the single-tree size, and the external environment can promote or inhibit tree growth. Climate and stand structure variables were relatively more important for tree growth than the topographic factors. Lower temperature and precipitation, higher stand density, and canopy closure were more unfavorable for their growth. In afforestation, the following factors should be considered in order: geographic location, meteorological climate, stand structure, and topography. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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15 pages, 2886 KiB  
Article
Classification of Transmission Line Corridor Tree Species Based on Drone Data and Machine Learning
by Xiuting Li, Ruirui Wang, Xingwang Chen, Yiran Li and Yunshan Duan
Sustainability 2022, 14(14), 8273; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148273 - 06 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1308
Abstract
Tree growth in power line corridors poses a threat to power lines and requires regular inspections. In order to achieve sustainable and intelligent management of transmission line corridor forests, a transmission line corridor tree barrier management system is needed, and tree species classification [...] Read more.
Tree growth in power line corridors poses a threat to power lines and requires regular inspections. In order to achieve sustainable and intelligent management of transmission line corridor forests, a transmission line corridor tree barrier management system is needed, and tree species classification is an important part of this. In order to accurately identify tree species in transmission line corridors, this study combines airborne LiDAR (light detection and ranging) point-cloud data and synchronously acquired high-resolution aerial image data to classify tree species. First, individual-tree segmentation and feature extraction are performed. Then, the random forest (RF) algorithm is used to sort and filter the feature importance. Finally, two non-parametric classification algorithms, RF and support vector machine (SVM), are selected, and 12 classification schemes are designed to perform tree species classification and accuracy evaluation research. The results show that after using RF for feature filtering, the classification results are better than those without feature filtering, and the overall accuracy can be improved by 3.655% on average. The highest classification accuracy is achieved when using SVM after combining a digital orthorectification map (DOM) and LiDAR for feature filtering, with an overall accuracy of 85.16% and a kappa coefficient of 0.79. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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16 pages, 874 KiB  
Article
Input–Output Efficiency of the Beijing–Tianjin Sandstorm Source Control Project and Influencing Factors
by Yuxin Cui, Xuesong Gu, Zelin Liu and Jingxiong Yi
Sustainability 2022, 14(14), 8266; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148266 - 06 Jul 2022
Viewed by 1076
Abstract
From the perspective of economic benefit, this paper uses the DEA method to measure the input–output efficiency of the Beijing–Tianjin sandstorm source control project in Beijing, Hebei, Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia. The results show that from 2003 to 2019, the efficiency of the [...] Read more.
From the perspective of economic benefit, this paper uses the DEA method to measure the input–output efficiency of the Beijing–Tianjin sandstorm source control project in Beijing, Hebei, Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia. The results show that from 2003 to 2019, the efficiency of the four regions revealed a U-shaped trend, first decreasing and then increasing, which reflects the lagging characteristics of forestry engineering. The TFP of the sand source control project in these four places was calculated; the average efficiency growth rate was 1.4%, and it was found to be affected greatly by the rate of technological progress. The Tobit model was used to explore the influencing factors, and the results show that educational input and economic development level have a great effect on efficiency, fiscal pressure has a small effect on efficiency, and financial development level has a restraining effect on efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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26 pages, 6021 KiB  
Article
GEF Innovative Forest Management Plan—Taking Grassland Forest Farm in Fengning County as an Example
by Ziye Liu, Zhongke Feng and Chen Chang
Sustainability 2022, 14(13), 7795; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137795 - 27 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1466
Abstract
Currently, China’s forest ecosystem focus is shifting from a single management objective to multiple management objectives, aiming to improve forest quality and maximize the benefits of ecosystem services. Many difficulties and problems are encountered in the long-term development of most northern state-owned forest [...] Read more.
Currently, China’s forest ecosystem focus is shifting from a single management objective to multiple management objectives, aiming to improve forest quality and maximize the benefits of ecosystem services. Many difficulties and problems are encountered in the long-term development of most northern state-owned forest farms—for example, the fragmentation and degradation of forest landscapes caused by poor forest management and extensive land use—resulting in an ecosystem that is unable to provide optimal services. This research was conducted on the Fengning Grassland Forest Farm, which is based on the GEF project of state-owned forest farms. We applied lessons from international advanced concepts, such as landscape restoration, and combinecombined all types of existing data and supplementary survey data on forest farms. In addition, we used multivariate statistical analysis and geostatistical analysis methods to optimize spatial layout and forest landscape structure. Strategies of landscape restoration and optimization, forest quality improvement, and grassland ecological restoration were proposed. A forest growth model was established to predict the annual growth of forests, calculate sustainable levels of annual cutting, calculate biomass and carbon sequestration in the management period, and evaluate the value of the ecological service functions of forest ecosystems in forest farms. Finally, a set of forest management methods was developed to effectively improve the sustainable management level of state-owned forest farms and enhance the service function of forest ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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15 pages, 4417 KiB  
Article
Changes in Temporal Dynamics and Factors Influencing the Environment of the Bacterial Community in Mangrove Rhizosphere Sediments in Hainan
by Kaiqi Lu, Qiu Yang, Yamin Jiang and Wenjie Liu
Sustainability 2022, 14(12), 7415; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127415 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1743
Abstract
The structural characteristics of the rhizosphere soil’s microbial community is crucial to understanding the ecological function of mangroves. However, the mechanism influencing mangrove plants in soil microbial communities has yet to be determined. Here, the mangrove ecosystem of Xinying Mangrove National Wetland Park [...] Read more.
The structural characteristics of the rhizosphere soil’s microbial community is crucial to understanding the ecological function of mangroves. However, the mechanism influencing mangrove plants in soil microbial communities has yet to be determined. Here, the mangrove ecosystem of Xinying Mangrove National Wetland Park in Hainan Province was taken as the research object. The microbial communities, external regulatory factors, and the relationship between communities were analyzed using 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing in the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere sediments of mangrove forests under different spatiotemporal conditions. The results showed that there was no significant difference in the α-diversity of the bacterial community between the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere sediments. However, β-diversity was significantly different. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that other environmental factors besides sulfide and Fe2+ affected the bacterial community structure in sediments. The co-occurrence pattern analysis of bacteria in the mangrove ecosystem indicates that the bacteria in rhizosphere sediments were more closely related than those in non-rhizosphere sediments. The results reveal significant differences between the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere bacterial community diversity, structure, and their interaction in the mangrove ecosystem. Therefore, the ecological system of the mangrove wetland needs to be preserved and rehabilitated, which would have a tremendous impact on the sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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14 pages, 516 KiB  
Article
Measurement of Forest Ecological Benefits Based on Big Data
by Hua Li, Shuo Liu and Tijiu Cai
Sustainability 2022, 14(12), 7248; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127248 - 13 Jun 2022
Viewed by 1373
Abstract
Socioeconomic development combined with the development and utilization of forest resources have resulted in the forest ecological environment becoming more and more valuable, and its impact on the national economy has also increased. Firstly, based on a modern statistical model, the dependent variable [...] Read more.
Socioeconomic development combined with the development and utilization of forest resources have resulted in the forest ecological environment becoming more and more valuable, and its impact on the national economy has also increased. Firstly, based on a modern statistical model, the dependent variable and independent variable set of standardized forest ecological benefits were determined, and the seemingly unrelated forest ecological benefit model was established. According to the alternative market method and market approximation theory, the first and second monetary models of forest ecological benefit value were constructed using the market approximation coefficient, the effective area coefficient, and the physical quantity conversion coefficient. Next, the concept of “whole diffusion” was introduced into the establishment of the forest ecological benefit model, and the whole diffusion model was established to estimate the physical amount of forest ecological benefits. The concepts of classical forest ecological benefit and generalized forest ecological benefit were proposed. Forest management survey data were used to measure forest ecological benefit, and classic ecological benefit and generalized forest benefit were integrated into one system for the first time. The economic value is 94.31 million RMB ¥. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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14 pages, 2076 KiB  
Article
Error Analysis of Measuring the Diameter, Tree Height, and Volume of Standing Tree Using Electronic Theodolite
by Qing Yao, Jia Wang, Junping Zhang and Nina Xiong
Sustainability 2022, 14(12), 6950; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14126950 - 07 Jun 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2266
Abstract
The ability to measure diameter, tree height, and tree volume is of great value in forestry investigations. These three factors are not considered together when error analyses of measurement results are conducted. The aim of this study was to quantify the system error [...] Read more.
The ability to measure diameter, tree height, and tree volume is of great value in forestry investigations. These three factors are not considered together when error analyses of measurement results are conducted. The aim of this study was to quantify the system error analysis of the three factors mentioned above. Based on the principle of electronic theodolite non-destructive measurement of stem and error propagation theory, a mathematical model for calculating diameter, tree height, and volume error was derived to calculate the error in theoretical measurements. Moreover, a method utilizing F tests was proposed for analyzing the relative error based on the diameter, tree height, and volume factors. A total of 87 trees in Beijing were chosen as the experimental sample; the trees were divided into three sample groups according to size. The accuracy was assessed using the traditional method. The results showed that the error varied slightly with the size of the tree. The system error of the measured diameter was 0.44–0.59%; for tree height, this was 0.29–0.89%, and for the volume, it was 0.31–0.99%. There were no significant differences between the measured values and the true values of the resolved wood. The relative mean errors of volume, tree height, and diameter in practice were 4.47%, 1.18%, and 2.02%, respectively. The results suggest that the precision in electronic theodolite measurements in China is much higher than the accuracy requirement of relative error not exceeding 3–5%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 895 KiB  
Article
Credit Risk Evaluation of Forest Farmers under Internet Crowdfunding Mode: The Case of China’s Collective Forest Regions
by Xiaowo Wu, Jiangwei Tu, Boru Liu, Xi Zhou and Yanxiong Wu
Sustainability 2022, 14(10), 5832; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105832 - 11 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1715
Abstract
To effectively quantify and control the credit risk of forest farmers under internet crowdfunding mode, the combined weighting of norm grey correlation, the improved analytic hierarchy process and empirical mode decomposition method are proposed to measure the credit risk, and the interval rough [...] Read more.
To effectively quantify and control the credit risk of forest farmers under internet crowdfunding mode, the combined weighting of norm grey correlation, the improved analytic hierarchy process and empirical mode decomposition method are proposed to measure the credit risk, and the interval rough number DEMATEL method is used to analyze the credit risk factors of forest farmers. Through the calculation of comprehensive influence degree, it is concluded that the degree of investor information asymmetry, the intensity of supervision, the degree of innovation and cooperation between funders and investors are the main credit risk factors of forest farmers under internet crowdfunding mode, and a credit risk control mechanism is constructed according to the main credit risk factors to effectively improve the risk management and control level of forest farmers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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16 pages, 3099 KiB  
Article
Environmental Factors at Different Canopy Heights Had Significant Effects on Leaf Water-Use Efficiency in Cold-Temperate Larch Forest
by Zhaoxin Ge, Xiuling Man, Tijiu Cai, Beixing Duan, Ruihan Xiao and Zhipeng Xu
Sustainability 2022, 14(9), 5126; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095126 - 24 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1404
Abstract
It is of great significance to study short-term water-use efficiency (WUEs) at different canopy heights for accurately evaluating the adaptability of cold-temperate larch (Larix gmelinii) forest to climate change. The stable isotope method combining data of gradient meteorology, photosynthetic [...] Read more.
It is of great significance to study short-term water-use efficiency (WUEs) at different canopy heights for accurately evaluating the adaptability of cold-temperate larch (Larix gmelinii) forest to climate change. The stable isotope method combining data of gradient meteorology, photosynthetic properties and leaf structure were used to assess the influence of different canopy heights on short-term water-use efficiency (WUEs) in larch forests in the northern Da Hinggan Mountains. The results show that: (1) The rank of leaf WUEs at different canopy heights was upper canopy > middle canopy > lower canopy. The leaf WUEs in upper canopy was significantly higher than those in the middle and lower canopy (p < 0.01), and no significant difference was found between the middle and lower canopy (p > 0.05). (2) The environmental factors, the photosynthetic characteristics, the specific leaf weight (LMA) and stomatal density (SD) had significant impact (p < 0.05) on leaf WUEs at different canopy heights of larch forest. (3) The results of the weighted random forest analysis show that the main factor affecting WUEs in larch forests at different canopy heights was vapor pressure deficit (VPD), followed by relative humidity (RH) and net photosynthetic rate (Pn), while LMA and SD made relatively small contributions. This indicates that the variation of leaf WUEs at different canopy heights is mainly due to environmental factors. Our results highlight that the difference of environmental factors at different canopy heights should be considered in the future study of leaf WUE. Our results contribute to a better understanding of water utilization strategies and carbohydrate relations in the boreal forest ecosystems, which is of great significance for improving the sustainable management measures and strategies of boreal forest resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forest and Plant Resources for Sustainable Development)
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