2023

Jump to: 2022, 2021

7 pages, 995 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Transporting Tenebrio molitor Eggs: The Effect of Temperature, Humidity and Time on the Hatch Rate

by David Deruytter, Carl L. Coudron and Jonas Claeys

Sustainability 2023, 15(7), 6231; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076231 - 04 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1135

Insect farming can be an important tool in the realization of a more sustainable future. With a growing insect industry, animal transportation between and within farms is expected to increase. For Tenebrio molitor, using eggs may be convenient as it eliminates the [...] Read more.

Insect farming can be an important tool in the realization of a more sustainable future. With a growing insect industry, animal transportation between and within farms is expected to increase. For Tenebrio molitor, using eggs may be convenient as it eliminates the risk of cannibalism, food shortages and has a low risk of asphyxiation. However, there are at least three important variables during regular transport: time, temperature and relative humidity. For each one, as well as their interactions, there is a need to assess the effect on the hatch rate and establish lower and upper boundaries at which a good hatch rate of the eggs is possible. In this study, a total of 20 temperature/RH combinations were assessed (between 5–40 °C and 40–80% RH), with an exposure time ranging between 1 and 6 days for each combination. The results indicated that between 15 and 30 °C no negative effects were observed at any of the assessed RH or exposure times. Higher temperatures did result in a lower hatch rate; no eggs hatched at 40 °C, even after one day. Lower temperatures of 5 and 10 °C can be endured without pronounced adverse effects but only for a limited time (resp. 1 or 2 days). Including relative humidity in the model did improve the overall fit, but the effect is limited (compared to temperature or exposure time) with a slightly better hatch rate in dryer conditions at the extreme temperatures. Full article

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34 pages, 2015 KiB

Open AccessReview

Insect-Derived Chitin and Chitosan: A Still Unexploited Resource for the Edible Insect Sector

by Kashif ur Rehman, Clemens Hollah, Karin Wiesotzki, Volker Heinz, Kemal Aganovic, Rashid ur Rehman, Janos-Istvan Petrusan, Longyu Zheng, Jibin Zhang, Summar Sohail, Muhammad Khalid Mansoor, Christos I. Rumbos, Christos Athanassiou and Minmin Cai

Sustainability 2023, 15(6), 4864; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15064864 - 09 Mar 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5457

Abstract

Chitin and chitosan are biopolymers that are frequently found in nature and have a broad range of applications in the food, biomedical and industrial sectors, due to their high biological activity. The primary source of chitin and chitosan is shellfish, however, shortages in [...] Read more.

Chitin and chitosan are biopolymers that are frequently found in nature and have a broad range of applications in the food, biomedical and industrial sectors, due to their high biological activity. The primary source of chitin and chitosan is shellfish, however, shortages in the supply chain, seasonality issues in their availability, as well as ecological degradation are only a few of the problems with the main chitin resources. Due to the broad spectrum of applications for which chitin can be used, the demand for chitin and its derivatives is increasing. Therefore, the market is looking for widely available, greener alternatives to the main commercial chitin sources. Insects appear as a suitable candidate to fill this gap. During insect rearing and processing, a number of side streams are generated, e.g., exuviae of larvae and pupae, dead adults, etc. which are currently mostly discarded as waste. However, these side streams could constitute a novel and long-term supply of chitin for industrial applications. Recent research has demonstrated the suitability of several edible insect species for the production of chitin and chitosan, wherein the exoskeleton of the black soldier fly and field cricket are rich in chitin, making them a good source for chitin and chitosan extraction and purification among other farmed insect candidates. Moreover, several potential uses have been identified for insect-derived chitin and chitosan. Thus, this review aims to present recent advances in the production of chitin and chitosan from edible insects, specifically on their extraction and purification, as well as on their applications for agriculture, food and nutrition, biomedicine and bioplastic production. Full article

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9 pages, 890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of Phosphine on Different Life Stages of Alphitobius diaperinus and Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

by Marina Gourgouta and Christos G. Athanassiou

Sustainability 2023, 15(3), 2131; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032131 - 23 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1063

Abstract

The efficacy of phosphine has been established for numerous major stored product insects. However, data related to the evaluation of the effect of phosphine on Tenebrio molitor L and Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer are limited. The present study aims to evaluate the susceptibility of [...] Read more.

The efficacy of phosphine has been established for numerous major stored product insects. However, data related to the evaluation of the effect of phosphine on Tenebrio molitor L and Alphitobius diaperinus Panzer are limited. The present study aims to evaluate the susceptibility of these species to phosphine by using the following evaluation protocols: (a) all life stages were exposed for 3 days to different concentrations of phosphine, (b) adults were exposed to 3000 ppm until all exposed individuals were immobilized, using the Phosphine Tolerance Test (PTT, Detia Degesch GmbH, Germany), and (c) adults were exposed to 3000 ppm of phosphine for 90 min by again using the PTT protocol. For all series of bioassays, delayed mortality was recorded 7 and 14 d post-exposure. According to our results, 100 ppm for three days was sufficient to kill all life stages, including the eggs, for both species. Alphitobius diaperinus adults were found to be more tolerant than those T. molitor, as noticeable survival was observed, even after 90 min of exposure to 3000 ppm. Our study provides some initial data for the efficacy of short and long exposures of A. diaperinus and T. molitor to phosphine. Full article

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17 pages, 1082 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fishmeal Replacement by Full-Fat and Defatted Hermetia illucens Prepupae Meal in the Diet of Gilthead Seabream (Sparus aurata)

by Ioannis T. Karapanagiotidis, Marina C. Neofytou, Adamantia Asimaki, Evanthia Daskalopoulou, Pier Psofakis, Eleni Mente, Christos I. Rumbos and Christos G. Athanassiou

Sustainability 2023, 15(1), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010786 - 01 Jan 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2364

Abstract

Insect proteins are considered as suitable low environmental impact alternatives to fishmeal for sustainable aquafeeds. Among the different insect species, Hermetia illucens has attracted research and industrial interest due to its ability to grow well on organic side streams, its high protein content [...] Read more.

Insect proteins are considered as suitable low environmental impact alternatives to fishmeal for sustainable aquafeeds. Among the different insect species, Hermetia illucens has attracted research and industrial interest due to its ability to grow well on organic side streams, its high protein content and favorable amino acid profiles. Its lipid content although high is characterized by a lack of EPA and DHA that are essential to fish nutrition and thus a defatted form of Hermetia meal might be of better use in fish diets. Hence, two feeding trials were conducted to investigate the effects of the partial fishmeal replacement by increasing levels of a full-fat (up to 276 g/kg) and a defatted (up to 174 g/kg) H. illucens meal on feed intake, growth, feed utilization and nutrient compositions of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). Results showed that both the fat content and the inclusion level of H. illucens meal are critical for the success of fishmeal replacement in the diets of S. aurata as they strongly affect feed consumption. A lower palatability of H. illucens meal was observed when included at high dietary levels with the defatted form being more readily accepted by fish. The defatted H. illucens meal is more suitable than the full-fat type to replace fishmeal, with a dietary level of about 81–104 g/kg supporting the highest feed consumption, the highest growth, an unaffected proximate composition and a better feed utilization by S. aurata. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2023, 2021

14 pages, 3097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mutual Influence between Polyvinyl Chloride (Micro)Plastics and Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens L.)

by Siebe Lievens, Giulia Poma, Lotte Frooninckx, Tom Van der Donck, Jin Won Seo, Jeroen De Smet, Adrian Covaci and Mik Van Der Borght

Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12109; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912109 - 25 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2182

Abstract

Due to the expansion in the global population, there is an increase in animal protein demand and waste generation. Currently, food waste derived from supermarkets, etc., which is used to produce biogas, is collected separately and can contain (micro)plastics deriving from food packaging, [...] Read more.

Due to the expansion in the global population, there is an increase in animal protein demand and waste generation. Currently, food waste derived from supermarkets, etc., which is used to produce biogas, is collected separately and can contain (micro)plastics deriving from food packaging, imposing potential risks to the environment. A possible solution to address protein, waste and plastic concerns can potentially be achieved by rearing black soldier fly (BSF) larvae on such substrates. In this study, we investigated the effect of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (micro)plastics on the growth, survival, and bioconversion of BSF larvae. On the other hand, the impact of the larvae on the polymer structure and degradation was also assessed. This was carried out by rearing BSF larvae on artificial food waste spiked with micro-, meso-, and macroplastics, while measuring larval growth, survival, and bioconversion parameters. The remaining plastics were collected and analysed upon changes and degradation of their polymer structure. Generally, BSF larvae were not affected in terms of growth performance (179.9–210.4 mg), survival (77.1–87.3%), and bioconversion (FCR: 4.65–5.53) by the presence of (micro)plastics in the substrates. Furthermore, the larvae were also unable to significantly alter the polymer structure of the used plastic. Full article

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7 pages, 1010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Wet Feed pH on the Growth of Tenebrio molitor Larvae

by Carl L. Coudron, David Deruytter and Jonas Claeys

Sustainability 2022, 14(13), 7841; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137841 - 27 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1811

Abstract

For optimal growth, Tenebrio molitor needs both dry feed and wet feed. Storing dry feed is not a problem, but storing wet feed over a prolonged period is more challenging due to spoilage. It could be stored in a refrigerated room, but this [...] Read more.

For optimal growth, Tenebrio molitor needs both dry feed and wet feed. Storing dry feed is not a problem, but storing wet feed over a prolonged period is more challenging due to spoilage. It could be stored in a refrigerated room, but this process is energy consuming and therefore increases the price of production. Another option is to ferment the feed, as is done regularly in other branches of agriculture. No energy is needed, and the feed remains stable due to low pH levels. In this study, we assessed the growth of mealworm larvae fed with wheat bran and agar-agar gel. Different treatments received agar-agar gel of a specific pH, varying between 3 and 9 in increments of one pH unit, resulting in seven assessed pH values. The average weight of the larvae was determined every week until maximum weight was achieved. Mealworms at harvest grown at the lowest pH (3.02) were on average 8.1% lighter than their counterparts grown at higher pH levels. However, within ranges that could realistically occur in a mealworm production setting (pH > 3.5), no significant differences were found. In conclusion, fermentation can be used to store mealworm wet feed, without pH having a detrimental effect on mealworm growth. Full article

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11 pages, 2578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Valorization of Agricultural Side-Streams for the Rearing of Larvae of the Lesser Mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer)

by Marina Gourgouta, Christos I. Rumbos, Vasilios Michail and Christos G. Athanassiou

Sustainability 2022, 14(13), 7680; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137680 - 23 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1468

Abstract

During the last decade, insects have shown up as a promising answer to the increasing animal protein demand for a continuously growing human population. A wide spectrum of substrates of plant origin can be currently used as insect feed; the sustainability of insect [...] Read more.

During the last decade, insects have shown up as a promising answer to the increasing animal protein demand for a continuously growing human population. A wide spectrum of substrates of plant origin can be currently used as insect feed; the sustainability of insect rearing though greatly increases when organic side-streams and wastes are valorized and upcycled through their bioconversion with insects. Additionally, the exploitation of low-cost organic residues as insect feed can also significantly suppress the rearing cost and, consequently, the price of the insect meal. In this context, the aim of our work was to evaluate organic side-streams, generated through several agro-industrial processes, as feeding substrates for the larvae of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus. In a laboratory trial, eleven agricultural side-streams were provided to larvae singly to assess their potential to support complete larval development, whereas in the second trial, larvae were fed two groups of isoproteinic diets consisting of the side-streams that performed well in the first trial. Our results showed the suitability of several agricultural side-streams as feed for A. diaperinus larvae, e.g., barley by-products (classes I and II), sunflower meal, cotton cake and oat sidestream, which, when fed singly, efficiently supported larval growth, resulting in high survival rates and final larval weights, comparable to the control. Similarly, several of the side-streams-based diets tested were shown to be suitable for A. diaperinus rearing. These results aim to contribute to the utilization of agricultural side-streams singly or in composed diets for the rearing of A. diaperinus larvae. Full article

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9 pages, 1305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Density on the Growth and Temperature Production of Tenebrio molitor Larvae

by David Deruytter, Carl L. Coudron and Jonas Claeys

Sustainability 2022, 14(10), 6234; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106234 - 20 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2406

Abstract

Tenebrio molitor larvae live, at least partially, inside their feed. Hence, they do not live on a 2D plane but in a 3D environment. However, previous studies mainly focused on the optimal number of larvae for a given surface area, not the available [...] Read more.

Tenebrio molitor larvae live, at least partially, inside their feed. Hence, they do not live on a 2D plane but in a 3D environment. However, previous studies mainly focused on the optimal number of larvae for a given surface area, not the available volume. The goal of this study was to assess the growth and survival of mealworms in a standardized semi-industrial setting with a varying density (cm³) and substrate height. A full factorial experimental design was used with five larval densities (0.5–8 larvae/cm³) and four feed heights (1–8 cm) in 60 × 40 cm crates. Furthermore, the in-crate temperature was monitored and linked to the density. The results of this study clearly indicate that mealworm larvae prefer a low density (cm³). At low larvae densities, the substrate height was less important, with a slight preference for a thicker layer. In contrast, at high(er) larval densities, a lower layer thickness resulted in better growth. The in-crate week temperature varied up to 14 °C (25–39 °C) between treatments and could be predicted well based on the number and size of the larvae. These results may help the industry to improve their production efficiency in terms of larvae density, substrate height and room temperature. Full article

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23 pages, 3183 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Diet Fermentation Leads to Microbial Adaptation in Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens; Linnaeus, 1758) Larvae Reared on Palm Oil Side Streams

by Patrick Klüber, Dorothee Tegtmeier, Sabine Hurka, Janin Pfeiffer, Andreas Vilcinskas, Martin Rühl and Holger Zorn

Sustainability 2022, 14(9), 5626; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095626 - 06 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3342

Abstract

Insects offer a promising alternative source of protein to mitigate the environmental consequences of conventional livestock farming. Larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens; Linnaeus, 1758) efficiently convert a variety of organic side streams and residues into valuable proteins, lipids, [...] Read more.

Insects offer a promising alternative source of protein to mitigate the environmental consequences of conventional livestock farming. Larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens; Linnaeus, 1758) efficiently convert a variety of organic side streams and residues into valuable proteins, lipids, and chitin. Here, we evaluated the suitability of two palm oil industry side streams—empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm kernel meal (PKM)—as larval feed, and their impact on the larval gut microbiome. Among 69 fungal species we screened, Marasmius palmivorus, Irpex consors, and Bjerkandera adusta achieved the fastest growth and lignin degradation, so these fungi were used for the pretreatment of 7:3 mixtures of EFB and PKM. Larvae reared on the mixture pretreated with B. adusta (BAD) developed significantly more quickly and reached a higher final weight than those reared on the other pretreatments or the non-fermented reference (NFR). Amplicon sequencing of the BAD and NFR groups revealed major differences in the larval gut microbiome. The NFR group was dominated by facultatively anaerobic Enterobacteriaceae (typical of H. illucens larvae) whereas the BAD group favored obligately anaerobic, cellulolytic bacteria (Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae). We hypothesize that fungal lignin degradation led to an accumulation of mycelia and subsequent cellulolytic breakdown of fiber residues, thus improving substrate digestibility. Full article

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23 pages, 2624 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of Rearing Scale and Density on the Growth and Nutrient Composition of Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae

by Wael Yakti, Simon Schulz, Virginia Marten, Inga Mewis, Murali Padmanabha, Arne-Jens Hempel, Alexander Kobelski, Stefan Streif and Christian Ulrichs

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1772; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031772 - 04 Feb 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4466

Abstract

With the worldwide industrialization of black soldier fly (BSF) production, it is necessary to better understand how the rearing scale and larvae density influence the performance of larvae and the quality of the final product. In this study, a factorial experiment was conducted [...] Read more.

With the worldwide industrialization of black soldier fly (BSF) production, it is necessary to better understand how the rearing scale and larvae density influence the performance of larvae and the quality of the final product. In this study, a factorial experiment was conducted to test the effect of rearing scale and density on the growth and composition of the BSF larvae. The larvae were grown in four different scales (box sizes), keeping the area and feed provided to each larva constant and in two different densities. The results reveal significant differences in the larval growth depending on the scale and density, which could be attributed to the higher temperatures achieved in the bigger scales with a temperature difference of more than 5 °C between the smallest and the biggest scale. Both the scale and the density influenced the composition of the larvae. The crude protein levels were higher on the smallest scale, and the lower density (ranging from 32.5% to 36.5%), and crude fat concentrations were the opposite (ranging from 31.7% to 20.1%). The density also influenced the concentrations of S, Mg, K, P, Fe, Zn, Cu, Al, B, and Co, in addition to the analyzed free amino acids PPS, ALA, CIT, and ANS. Furthermore, the rearing scale influenced the concentration of S, Zn, Cu, and Mo. The results provide further insight into the optimization of BSF production processes and the transfer of lab-scale results into big-scale production. Full article

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13 pages, 332 KiB

Open AccessReview

Worming the Circular Economy for Biowaste and Plastics: Hermetia illucens, Tenebrio molitor, and Zophobas morio

by Zhi-Jue Kuan, Barnabas Kuan-Nang Chan and Samuel Ken-En Gan

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1594; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031594 - 29 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6741

Abstract

The negative impact of the modern-day lifestyle on the environment was aggravated during the COVID-19 pandemic through the increased use of single-use plastics from food take-aways to medical supplies. Similarly, the closure of food outlets and disrupted supply chains have also resulted in [...] Read more.

The negative impact of the modern-day lifestyle on the environment was aggravated during the COVID-19 pandemic through the increased use of single-use plastics from food take-aways to medical supplies. Similarly, the closure of food outlets and disrupted supply chains have also resulted in significant food wastage. As the pandemic rages on, the aggravation of increased waste becomes an increasingly urgent problem that threatens the biodiversity, ecosystems, and human health worldwide through pollution. While there are existing methods to deal with organic and plastic waste, many of the solutions cause additional problems. Increasingly proposed as a natural solution to man-made problems, there are insect solutions for dealing with the artificial and organic waste products and moving towards a circular economy, making the use of natural insect solutions commercially sustainable. This review discusses the findings on how some of these insects, particularly Hermetia illucens, Tenebrio molitor, and Zophobas morio, can play an increasingly important role in food and plastics, with a focus on the latter. Full article

15 pages, 333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Meat Quality of Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus) Fed with Black Soldier Fly Larvae Meal (Hermetia illucens) as a Protein Source

by Esteban Herrera, Janos-Istvan Petrusan, Bettit Salvá-Ruiz, Alexandra Novak, Kenyi Cavalcanti, Víctor Aguilar, Volker Heinz and Sergiy Smetana

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031292 - 24 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4692

Abstract

The most widely used feed ingredients in the world are fishmeal and soybean, which, despite having high-quality digestible protein and good fat content, are considered environmentally unsustainable and increasingly expensive. This issue also involves the guinea pig, a very important animal protein source [...] Read more.

The most widely used feed ingredients in the world are fishmeal and soybean, which, despite having high-quality digestible protein and good fat content, are considered environmentally unsustainable and increasingly expensive. This issue also involves the guinea pig, a very important animal protein source for people in Andean regions in South America. Here we investigate the substitution of soybean meal with 50% and 100% black soldier fly larvae meal in the guinea pig diet and its effects on meat quality (fatty acid profile, amino acid profile, water-holding capacity, pH, proximal composition, and color). The results showed no differences in the protein content and amino acid profile of meat nor in the n-6:n-3 and P/S ratios, but did show an increment in the desirable fats (mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids) in the guinea pigs fed with black soldier fly larvae meal. All the other analyzed parameters showed no differences among the diets tested. These results suggest that total replacement of soybean meal with black soldier fly larvae meal in guinea pig nutrition is feasible since meat quality was maintained or improved. Full article

2021

Jump to: 2023, 2022

11 pages, 1149 KiB

Open AccessReview

Clanis bilineata tsingtauica: A Sustainable Edible Insect Resource

by Yu Gao, Yi-Jin Zhao, Meng-Lei Xu and Shu-Sen Shi

Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12533; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212533 - 12 Nov 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2258

Abstract

Insects provide a series of ecological services vital to human survival. Over 1000 insect species have been used for human consumption in Asia, Latin America, and Africa for more than 2000 years. Among them, the soybean hawkmoth, Clanis bilineata tsingtauica (CBT), is a [...] Read more.

Insects provide a series of ecological services vital to human survival. Over 1000 insect species have been used for human consumption in Asia, Latin America, and Africa for more than 2000 years. Among them, the soybean hawkmoth, Clanis bilineata tsingtauica (CBT), is a traditional edible insect. CBT, known for its high nutritional value, is considered safe with a long consumption history in East Asia. The present review provides an overview of the rearing technology and utilization prospects of CBT. It has been extensively cultivated on live soybean plants under field and glasshouse conditions. However, an efficient rearing technology has not been reported. The mass production of CBT is still under investigation, and more advanced technology is required to develop high-quality food ingredients to meet consumer needs on a large scale. In addition, food derived from the soybean hawkmoth is prevalent in the farm product market. It is used as freeze-dried, fried, fresh meat, and canned meat. CBT-derived food, a potential dietary supplement used to retard aging in humans, would be a novel and emerging product in the food industry. The development of CBT-derived food will generate more economic and social value if the market demand can be met. This review will provide an insight into CBT mass production and its potential application in the food industry. Full article

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11 pages, 15574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Temperature, Relative Humidity and Protein Content on the Growth and Development of Larvae of the Lesser Mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer)

by Konstantina Kotsou, Christos I. Rumbos, Georgia V. Baliota, Marina Gourgouta and Christos G. Athanassiou

Sustainability 2021, 13(19), 11087; https://doi.org/10.3390/su131911087 - 07 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2613

Abstract

The human population is rapidly growing, subsequently leading to an increase in food and protein demand. Therefore, alternative protein sources have to be evaluated as food and feed. Among the most promising alternative protein sources with significant advantages are insects. Nevertheless, insect rearing [...] Read more.

The human population is rapidly growing, subsequently leading to an increase in food and protein demand. Therefore, alternative protein sources have to be evaluated as food and feed. Among the most promising alternative protein sources with significant advantages are insects. Nevertheless, insect rearing conditions have to be optimized prior to insect mass production. In the present study, using laboratory bioassays, we evaluated the effect of several biotic and abiotic factors on the development of the larvae of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer). In the first series of bioassays, we investigated A. diaperinus larval growth at three temperatures (25, 30 and 32 °C) and two relative humidity (r.h.) levels (55 and 75%). Furthermore, in the second series of bioassays, the larval growth was assessed on wheat bran-based substrates with different percentages of yeast, i.e., 0%, 10%, 17.5%, 25%, 32.5% and 40%. According to our results, the temperature was shown to be highly important for larval development, with A. diaperinus larvae performing better at the higher temperatures tested, i.e., 30 and 32 °C. In contrast, relative humidity did not have a significant effect on A. diaperinus growth, at least for the relative humidity levels tested. Finally, the increase in the percentage of yeast in the diet increased larval growth, development and survival. Our study aims to highlight the significance of several biotic and abiotic factors for the rearing of A. diaperinus larvae, providing parameters that can be further utilized in mass rearing protocols of this species. Full article

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