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Sustainable Use of Soils and Water: the Role of Environmental Land Use Conflicts

A special issue of Sustainability (ISSN 2071-1050). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Sustainability and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2019) | Viewed by 72196

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Special Issue Editor

DG-CQVR-UTAD – Department of Geology, Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, 5001-801 Vila Real, Portugal
Interests: groundwater management; groundwater contamination risk; water–rock interactions; groundwater flow modeling; groundwater–surface water interactions; land degradation and surface water quality; spatial decision support systems in public water supply planning; conjunctive use of water resources; water security
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In many rural watersheds land use changes trigger soil and water degradation hampering the ecosystems to provide enough food and quality freshwater as service to human kind. The negative impacts of land use changes on soil and water have been discussed in many studies but the full causes and paths of degradation remain poorly understood.

Some recent studies have analyzed land use changes and their impacts on soil and water through comparisons of actual and natural land uses also called land capabilities. In that context, it has been reported the amplification of soil losses and nutrient exports to stream water in areas where the actual use deviates considerably from land capability. These areas are said to be in environmental land use conflict. Severe conflicts frequently occur where, for example, steep slope hillsides that are used for agriculture (e.g. vineyards) instead of being protected with forest cover. Besides amplification of soil losses and nutrient exports, environmental land use conflicts have also been related to decreases in soil fertility (through losses of organic matter), groundwater quality and aquatic biodiversity.

Despite the recent developments on the study of environmental land use conflicts, the full path from a sustainable use that respects capability to a use that degrades the full ecosystem needs to be further studied. Following this rationale, the purpose of this special issue is to collect contributions in the topics of:

  • Changes in soil structure as well as in physical and chemical properties of soil triggered by land use changes;
  • Impacts of land use changes on vegetation vigor (e.g., through assessment of NDVI - Normalized Difference Vegetation Index);
  • Impacts of land use changes on crop productivity;
  • Innovative analysis and modeling of environmental land use conflicts and their impacts;
  • Integrative assessment of environmental land use conflicts and their multiple impacts;
  • Environmental land use conflicts at plot, watershed and larger scales;
  • Environmental land use conflicts and time;
  • Mitigation of environmental land use conflicts towards the sustainable use of soil and water.

I believe that this Special Issue may help bring land use planners to the conscience that sustainable use of soils and water begins with a land use or occupation based on capability, and that deviation from this reality inevitably leads ecosystems to danger and ultimately to collapse as service providers.

Thank you very much for your contributions.

Prof. Fernando A.L. Pacheco
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Land use and land capability
  • Land use change
  • Environmental land use conflict
  • Environmental impact assessment
  • Soil erosion
  • Land degradation
  • Water quality decline
  • Biodiversity loss
  • Crop productivity
  • Modeling
  • Geographic Information System

Published Papers (18 papers)

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Editorial

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8 pages, 200 KiB  
Editorial
Sustainable Use of Soils and Water: The Role of Environmental Land Use Conflicts
by Fernando A. L. Pacheco
Sustainability 2020, 12(3), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031163 - 06 Feb 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2028
Abstract
Sustainability is a utopia of societies, that could be achieved by a harmonious balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection, including the sustainable exploitation of natural resources. The present Special Issue addresses a multiplicity of realities that confirm a deviation from this utopia [...] Read more.
Sustainability is a utopia of societies, that could be achieved by a harmonious balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection, including the sustainable exploitation of natural resources. The present Special Issue addresses a multiplicity of realities that confirm a deviation from this utopia in the real world, as well as the concerns of researchers. These scholars point to measures that could help lead the damaged environment to a better status. The studies were focused on sustainable use of soils and water, as well as on land use or occupation changes that can negatively affect the quality of those resources. Some other studies attempt to assess (un)sustainability in specific regions through holistic approaches, like the land carrying capacity, the green gross domestic product or the eco-security models. Overall, the special issue provides a panoramic view of competing interests for land and the consequences for the environment derived therefrom. Full article

Research

Jump to: Editorial

21 pages, 5327 KiB  
Article
Conjunctive Water Resources Management in Densely Urbanized Karst Areas: A Study in the Sete Lagoas Region, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil
by Hugo Henrique Cardoso de Salis, Adriana Monteiro da Costa, Annika Künne, Luís Filipe Sanches Fernandes and Fernando António Leal Pacheco
Sustainability 2019, 11(14), 3944; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143944 - 19 Jul 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2737
Abstract
Headwater catchments store valuable resources of quality water, but their hydraulic response is difficult to assess (model) because they are usually deprived of monitoring stations, namely hydrometric stations. This issue becomes even more pertinent because headwater catchments are ideal for the practice of [...] Read more.
Headwater catchments store valuable resources of quality water, but their hydraulic response is difficult to assess (model) because they are usually deprived of monitoring stations, namely hydrometric stations. This issue becomes even more pertinent because headwater catchments are ideal for the practice of conjunctive water resources management involving the supply of towns with groundwater and surface water, a solution that can be used to mitigate overexploitation of groundwater resources in densely urbanized and populated areas. In this study, a stepwise approach is presented whereby, in a first stage, a gauged basin was modeled for stream flow using the JAMS J2000 framework, with the purpose to obtain calibrated hydraulic parameters and ecological simulated stream flow records. Having validated the model through a comparison of simulated and measured flows, the simulated record was adjusted to the scale of an ungauged sub-basin, based on a new run of JAMS J2000 using the same hydraulic parameters. At this stage, a second validation of modeled data was accomplished through comparison of the downscaled flow rates with discharge rates assessed by field measurements of flow velocity and water column height. The modeled basin was a portion of Jequitiba River basin, while the enclosed sub-basin was the Marinheiro catchment (state of Minas Gerais, Brazil). The latter is a peri-urban watershed located in the vicinity of Sete Lagoas town, a densely urbanized and populated area. This town uses 15.5 hm3 year−1 of karst groundwater for public water supply, but the renewable resources were estimated to be 6.3 hm3 year−1. The impairment between abstraction and renewable resources lasts for decades, and for that reason the town experiences systemic water table declines and sinkhole development. The present study claims that the storage of quality water in the Marinheiro catchment, in a dam reservoir, would help alleviate the depletion of groundwater resources in the karst aquifer because this catchment could deliver 4.73 hm3 year−1 of quality surface water to the municipality without endangering ecologic flows. The construction of a small dam at the outlet of Marinheiro catchment could also improve aquifer recharge. Presently, the annual recharge in this catchment approaches 1.47 hm3 but could be much larger if the small dam was installed in the water course and the captured stream water managed properly. Full article
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19 pages, 876 KiB  
Article
Modelling Development, Territorial and Legislative Factors Impacting the Changes in Use of Agricultural Land in Slovakia
by Lucia Palšová, Katarína Melichová and Ina Melišková
Sustainability 2019, 11(14), 3893; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143893 - 17 Jul 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2360
Abstract
The conflict of interests in agricultural land use based on the diversity of needs of private and public interest is the main problem of the current protection of agricultural land in Slovakia. Therefore, the aim of the paper is to identify factors affecting [...] Read more.
The conflict of interests in agricultural land use based on the diversity of needs of private and public interest is the main problem of the current protection of agricultural land in Slovakia. Therefore, the aim of the paper is to identify factors affecting the withdrawal of agricultural land, i.e., conversion of the agricultural land to non-agricultural purposes, and to initiate a professional discussion on the concept of protection and use of the agricultural land in Slovakia. Through panel regression models, the developmental, territorial, and legislative factors affecting land withdrawal for the purpose of housing, industry, transport, mining, and other purposes were analyzed. Research has shown that developmental factors, compared to legislative ones, affect the total volume of agricultural land withdrawn in bigger scope. From the perspective of the conflict of interests between the individuals and state regarding land protection, the private interest prevails over the public one. As a consequence, agricultural land is withdrawn in suburbanized and attractive areas, where the land of the highest quality is mostly located. In accordance with the precautionary principle, the state should adopt a long-term conceptual document defining the areas of agricultural land use taking into account the impact of the developmental factors on the land protection. Full article
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16 pages, 4417 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Water Footprint for Major Agricultural and Livestock Products in Korea
by Ik Kim and Kyung-shin Kim
Sustainability 2019, 11(10), 2980; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102980 - 25 May 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4181
Abstract
The Republic of Korea is the only country classified with severe water stress among the 34 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries. Additionally, the self-sufficiency rate of grain in Korea is 27%, which is 1/3 the average of OECD member [...] Read more.
The Republic of Korea is the only country classified with severe water stress among the 34 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries. Additionally, the self-sufficiency rate of grain in Korea is 27%, which is 1/3 the average of OECD member countries. Because food cannot be produced without water, demand-driven water management of agricultural and livestock products applying water footprints is needed for food security. For this, this study estimates the water footprints of 42 agricultural products and three livestock products. Based on the results, the water footprint of the vegetables grown in facility such as a greenhouse is 7.9 times larger per ton than the footprint of the vegetables cultivated in the open field. Furthermore, the water footprint per ton of beef is about 4.2 times the average water footprint per ton of vegetables grown in facility. Based on the water footprint data of 45 agricultural and livestock products, the footprint of total agricultural and livestock products in 2014 is approximately 27.9% of the total domestic water resources consumed in Korea. Full article
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20 pages, 2689 KiB  
Article
Groundwater Recharge Potential for Sustainable Water Use in Urban Areas of the Jequitiba River Basin, Brazil
by Adriana Monteiro da Costa, Hugo Henrique Cardoso de Salis, João Hebert Moreira Viana and Fernando António Leal Pacheco
Sustainability 2019, 11(10), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102955 - 24 May 2019
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4937
Abstract
The zoning of groundwater recharge potential would be attractive for water managers, but is lacking in many regions around the planet, including in the Jequitiba River basin, Minas Gerais, Brazil. In this study, a physically based spatially distributed method to evaluate groundwater recharge [...] Read more.
The zoning of groundwater recharge potential would be attractive for water managers, but is lacking in many regions around the planet, including in the Jequitiba River basin, Minas Gerais, Brazil. In this study, a physically based spatially distributed method to evaluate groundwater recharge potential at catchment scale was developed and tested in the aforementioned Jequitiba River basin. The data for the test was compiled from institutional sources and implemented in a Geographic Information System. It comprised meteorological, hydrometric, relief, land use, and soil data. The average results resembled the annual recharge calculated by a hydrograph method, which worked as validation method. The spatial variation of recharge highlighted the predominant contribution of flat areas, porous aquifers, and forested regions to groundwater recharge. They also exposed the negative effect of urbanization. In combination, these factors elected the following sectors of the Jequitiba River basin as regions of high recharge potential: the south-southeast part of the headwaters in Prudente de Morais; Sete Lagoas towards the central part of the basin; and the region between Funilândia and Jequitiba, near the Jequitiba river mouth. Some management practices were suggested to improve groundwater recharge. The map of groundwater recharge potential produced in this study is valuable and is therefore proposed as tool for planners in the sustainable use of groundwater and protection of recharge areas. Full article
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21 pages, 12435 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Soil Suitability for Improvement of Soil Factors and Agricultural Management
by Sameh Kotb Abd-Elmabod, Noura Bakr, Miriam Muñoz-Rojas, Paulo Pereira, Zhenhua Zhang, Artemi Cerdà, Antonio Jordán, Hani Mansour, Diego De la Rosa and Laurence Jones
Sustainability 2019, 11(6), 1588; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061588 - 15 Mar 2019
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 8525
Abstract
The dramatic growth of the world’s population is increasing the pressure on natural resources, particularly on soil systems. At the same time, inappropriate agricultural practices are causing widespread soil degradation. Improved management of soil resources and identification of the potential agricultural capability of [...] Read more.
The dramatic growth of the world’s population is increasing the pressure on natural resources, particularly on soil systems. At the same time, inappropriate agricultural practices are causing widespread soil degradation. Improved management of soil resources and identification of the potential agricultural capability of soils is therefore needed to prevent further land degradation, particularly in dryland areas such as Egypt. Here, we present a case study in the El-Fayoum depression (Northern Egypt) to model and map soil suitability for 12 typical Mediterranean crops. Two management scenarios were analyzed: the current situation (CS) and an optimal scenario (OS) of soil variables. The Almagra model was applied to estimate soil suitability under CS and OS. Management options based on the CS assessment were proposed to reduce some limiting factors: a fixed value of 2 dSm−1 for soil salinity and 5% for sodium saturation; these defined the OS. Under optimal management, the OS scenario showed potential, where a notable increase of the area covered by a high suitability class (around 80%) for annual and semi-annual crops was observed. There was also a marked increase (about 70% for CS and 50% for OS) for perennial crops shifting from the marginal to moderate soil suitability class. The results reveal the importance of proper management to massively alter soil suitability into better states in order to achieve sustainable land use in this fertile agro-ecosystem. Full article
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18 pages, 6832 KiB  
Article
Land Use/Cover Change Effects on River Basin Hydrological Processes Based on a Modified Soil and Water Assessment Tool: A Case Study of the Heihe River Basin in Northwest China’s Arid Region
by Xin Jin, Yanxiang Jin and Xufeng Mao
Sustainability 2019, 11(4), 1072; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041072 - 19 Feb 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3632
Abstract
Land use/cover change (LUCC) affects canopy interception, soil infiltration, land-surface evapotranspiration (ET), and other hydrological parameters during rainfall, which in turn affects the hydrological regimes and runoff mechanisms of river basins. Physically based distributed (or semi-distributed) models play an important role in interpreting [...] Read more.
Land use/cover change (LUCC) affects canopy interception, soil infiltration, land-surface evapotranspiration (ET), and other hydrological parameters during rainfall, which in turn affects the hydrological regimes and runoff mechanisms of river basins. Physically based distributed (or semi-distributed) models play an important role in interpreting and predicting the effects of LUCC on the hydrological processes of river basins. However, conventional distributed (or semi-distributed) models, such as the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT), generally assume that no LUCC takes place during the simulation period to simplify the computation process. When applying the SWAT, the subject river basin is subdivided into multiple hydrologic response units (HRUs) based on the land use/cover type, soil type, and surface slope. The land use/cover type is assumed to remain constant throughout the simulation period, which limits the ability to interpret and predict the effects of LUCC on hydrological processes in the subject river basin. To overcome this limitation, a modified SWAT (LU-SWAT) was developed that incorporates annual land use/cover data to simulate LUCC effects on hydrological processes under different climatic conditions. To validate this approach, this modified model and two other models (one model based on the 2000 land use map, called SWAT 1; one model based on the 2009 land use map, called SWAT 2) were applied to the middle reaches of the Heihe River in northwest China; this region is most affected by human activity. Study results indicated that from 1990 to 2009, farmland, forest, and urban areas all showed increasing trends, while grassland and bare land areas showed decreasing trends. Primary land use changes in the study area were from grassland to farmland and from bare land to forest. During this same period, surface runoff, groundwater runoff, and total water yield showed decreasing trends, while lateral flow and ET volume showed increasing trends under dry, wet, and normal conditions. Changes in the various hydrological parameters were most evident under dry and normal climatic conditions. Based on the existing research of the middle reaches of the Heihe River, and a comparison of the other two models from this study, the modified LU-SWAT developed in this study outperformed the conventional SWAT when predicting the effects of LUCC on the hydrological processes of river basins. Full article
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14 pages, 2716 KiB  
Article
Temporal-Spatial Variations and Influencing Factor of Land Use Change in Xinjiang, Central Asia, from 1995 to 2015
by Qun Liu, Zhaoping Yang, Cuirong Wang and Fang Han
Sustainability 2019, 11(3), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030696 - 29 Jan 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3080
Abstract
In this study, we analyzed the temporal-spatial variations of the characteristics of land use change in central Asia over the past two decades. This was conducted using four indicators (change rate, equilibrium extent, dynamic index, and transfer direction) and a multi-scale correlation analysis [...] Read more.
In this study, we analyzed the temporal-spatial variations of the characteristics of land use change in central Asia over the past two decades. This was conducted using four indicators (change rate, equilibrium extent, dynamic index, and transfer direction) and a multi-scale correlation analysis method, which explained the impact of recent environmental transformations on land use changes. The results indicated that the integrated dynamic degree of land use increased by 2.2% from 1995 to 2015. The areas of cropland, water bodies, and artificial land increased, with rates of 1047 km2/a, 39 km2/a, and 129 km2/a, respectively. On the other hand, the areas of forest, grassland, and unused land decreased, with rates of 54 km2/a, 803 km2/a, and 359 km2/a, respectively. There were significant increases in cropland and water bodies from 1995 to 2005, while the amount of artificial land significantly increased from 2005 to 2015. The increased areas of cropland in Xinjiang were mainly converted from grassland and unused land from 1995 to 2015, while the artificial land increase was mainly a result of the conversion from cropland, grassland, and unused land. The area of cropland rapidly expanded in south Xinjiang, which has led to centroid position to move cropland in Xinjiang in a southwest direction. Economic development and the rapid growth of population size are the main factors responsible for the cropland increases in Xinjiang. Runoff variations have a key impact on cropland changes at the river basin scale, as seen in three typical river basins. Full article
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19 pages, 6480 KiB  
Article
National Green GDP Assessment and Prediction for China Based on a CA-Markov Land Use Simulation Model
by Yuhan Yu, Mengmeng Yu, Lu Lin, Jiaxin Chen, Dongjie Li, Wenting Zhang and Kai Cao
Sustainability 2019, 11(3), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030576 - 22 Jan 2019
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 8826
Abstract
Green Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an important indicator to reflect the trade-off between the ecosystem and economic system. Substantial research has mapped historical green GDP spatially. But few studies have concerned future variations of green GDP. In this study, we have calculated [...] Read more.
Green Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an important indicator to reflect the trade-off between the ecosystem and economic system. Substantial research has mapped historical green GDP spatially. But few studies have concerned future variations of green GDP. In this study, we have calculated and mapped the spatial distribution of the green GDP by summing the ecosystem service value (ESV) and GDP for China from 1990 to 2015. The pattern of land use change simulated by a CA-Markov model was used in the process of ESV prediction (with an average accuracy of 86%). On the other hand, based on the increasing trend of GDP during the period of 1990 to 2015, a regression model was built up to present time-series increases in GDP at prefecture-level cities, having an average value of R square (R2) of approximately 0.85 and significance level less than 0.05. The results indicated that (1) from 1990 to 2015, green GDP was increased, with a huge growth rate of 78%. Specifically, the ESV value was decreased slightly, while the GDP value was increased substantially. (2) Forecasted green GDP would increase by 194,978.29 billion yuan in 2050. Specifically, the future ESV will decline, while the rapidly increased GDP leads to the final increase in future green GDP. (3) According to our results, the spatial differences in green GDP for regions became more significant from 1990 to 2050. Full article
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12 pages, 952 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Land Carrying Capacities of the Cities in the Shandong Peninsula Blue Economic Zone and their Spatio-Temporal Variations
by Guangming Cui, Xuliang Zhang, Zhaohui Zhang, Yinghui Cao and Xiujun Liu
Sustainability 2019, 11(2), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020439 - 16 Jan 2019
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3475
Abstract
The comprehensive land carrying capacities of seven cities in the Shandong Peninsula Blue Economic Zone between 2007–2014 were assessed using a multi-criterion comprehensive evaluation approach and an index of 27 indicators, and cluster analysis was conducted to identify the spatial-temporal variations of the [...] Read more.
The comprehensive land carrying capacities of seven cities in the Shandong Peninsula Blue Economic Zone between 2007–2014 were assessed using a multi-criterion comprehensive evaluation approach and an index of 27 indicators, and cluster analysis was conducted to identify the spatial-temporal variations of the cities’ comprehensive land carrying capacities. The results showed that the carrying capacity of the water and soil resources of the cities had declined except Dongying City; in contrast, the carrying capacities of the eco-environment, the social resources and the economy and technology of the seven cities had all arisen. The carrying capacities of social resources of Dongying and Weihai were markedly higher than the other five cities. The carrying capacities of economy and technology of Qingdao and Dongying were high, the capacities of Weihai and Yantai were moderate, and the capacities of Weifang, Rizhao, and Binzhou were low. In general, the comprehensive land carrying capacities of the eastern cities were higher than those of the western cities, which was similar to the spatial pattern of the economy development of those cities. In addition, positive correlations were identified between the comprehensive land carrying capacity and the per capita land for construction, areal proportion of wetland to total land, percentage of green space to build up area, per capita public green space, comprehensive utilization rate of industrial solid waste residues, urbanization rate, area of per capita urban road, per capita GDP, economy density, fixed-assets investment per area, etc. However negative correlations were discovered between the comprehensive land carrying capacity and the discharge of industrial waste water per 10,000 Yuan RMB GDP, as well as the proportion of added value of the primary industry to total GDP. Finally, we discussed measures to improve the comprehensive land carrying capacities of the cities, such as elevating the intensive land utilization and economic development, decreasing the proportion of added value of the primary industry to total GDP, promoting energy saving and emission reduction, etc. Full article
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16 pages, 1054 KiB  
Article
Institutional Feasibility of Managed Aquifer Recharge in Northeast Ghana
by Lydia Kwoyiga and Catalin Stefan
Sustainability 2019, 11(2), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/su11020379 - 13 Jan 2019
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3467
Abstract
As part of global efforts to address the challenges that are confronting groundwater for various purposes (including irrigation), engineering methods such as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) have been adopted. This wave of MAR has engulfed some parts of Northern Ghana, characterized by insufficient [...] Read more.
As part of global efforts to address the challenges that are confronting groundwater for various purposes (including irrigation), engineering methods such as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) have been adopted. This wave of MAR has engulfed some parts of Northern Ghana, characterized by insufficient groundwater for dry-season irrigation. Inspired by the strides of these schemes, the paper assesses the institutional feasibility of MAR methods in the Atankwidi catchment where dry-season farmers may lose their source of livelihood due to limited access to groundwater. We used both primary and secondary data, together with policy documents, to address the following questions: (i) What provisions and impacts formal government institutions had for MAR, and; (ii) what catchment-level institutions exist which may influence MAR. The results show that formal government institutions do not prohibit the adoption of MAR in the country. Among these institutions, it is realized that laws/legislative instruments provide sufficient information and support for MAR than policies and administrative agencies. Moreover, catchment-level institutions which are informal in the form of taboos, rules, norms, traditions, and practices, together with local knowledge play a significant role as far as groundwater issues in the catchment are concerned, and are important for the adoption of MAR methods. Full article
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15 pages, 1659 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Impact of Rural Households’ Behaviors on Heavy Metal Pollution of Arable Soil: Taking Lankao County as an Example
by Shixin Ren, Erling Li, Qingqing Deng, Haishan He and Sijie Li
Sustainability 2018, 10(12), 4368; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124368 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2972
Abstract
As heavy metal pollution of arable soil is a significant issue concerning the quality of agricultural products and human health, the rural households’ behaviors have a direct impact on heavy metal content in arable soil and its pollution level, but only a few [...] Read more.
As heavy metal pollution of arable soil is a significant issue concerning the quality of agricultural products and human health, the rural households’ behaviors have a direct impact on heavy metal content in arable soil and its pollution level, but only a few researches have been done at such microscopic scale. Based on 101 field questionnaires of rural households in Lankao County and the monitoring data on heavy metal of arable soil of each rural household, the kind of rural households’ behaviors which impose obvious influence on heavy metal content of arable soil are investigated via single-factor pollution index, Nemerow pollution index and econometric model in this study. The results show that, rural households’ land utilization mode affects heavy metal content in soil, e.g., the degree of heavy metal pollution of soil for intensive planting is higher than that of traditional planting, viz. vegetable greenhouse > garlic land > traditional crop farmland. The management of cultivated land with due scale is beneficial to reducing heavy metal content in soil, that is, the land fragmentation degree is in direct proportion to heavy metal content in soil, so rural households are encouraged to carry out land circulation and combine the patch into a large one. Excess application of fertilizer, pesticide and organic fertilizer will lead to heavy metal pollution of soil, while agricultural technical training organized by government department and the foundation of agricultural cooperative can promote the technical level and degree of organization of rural households and enable them to be more scientific and rational in agrochemicals selection and application, hence reducing or avoiding heavy metal pollution of soil. Single factor pollution level of heavy metal in the soil for planting various crops is different, so it is recommended to prepare various pollution reduction programs for different land types and pollution levels for the harmony and unity of human-nature system. Full article
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16 pages, 1612 KiB  
Article
Nitrate Vulnerable Zones Revision in Poland—Assessment of Environmental Impact and Land Use Conflicts
by Ewa Szalińska, Paulina Orlińska-Woźniak and Paweł Wilk
Sustainability 2018, 10(9), 3297; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093297 - 14 Sep 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3919
Abstract
Despite concerted efforts through the European territory, the problems of nitrogen pollution released from agricultural sources have not been resolved yet. Therefore, infringement cases are still open against a few Member States, including Poland, based on fulfilment problems of commitments regarding the Nitrate [...] Read more.
Despite concerted efforts through the European territory, the problems of nitrogen pollution released from agricultural sources have not been resolved yet. Therefore, infringement cases are still open against a few Member States, including Poland, based on fulfilment problems of commitments regarding the Nitrate Directive. As a result of the litigation process, Poland has completely changed its approach to nitrate vulnerable zones. Instead of just selected areas, the measured actions will be implemented throughout the whole Polish territory. Additionally, further restrictions concerning the fertilizer use calendar will be introduced in areas indicated as extremely cold or hot, based on the average temperature distribution (poles of cold, and heat). Such a change will be of key importance to farmers, whose protests are already audible throughout the country, and can be expected to intensify. To assess the impact of the introduced modifications a modelling approach has been adopted. The use of the Macromodel DNS/SWAT allowed for the development of baseline and variant scenarios incorporating details of stipulated changes in the fertilizer use for a pilot catchment (Słupia River). The results clearly indicate that the new restriction will have a substantial effect on the aquatic environment by altering the amount of released total nitrogen. Full article
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30 pages, 4806 KiB  
Article
Integrative Assessment of Land Use Conflicts
by Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós and Viktória Miklósová
Sustainability 2018, 10(9), 3270; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093270 - 13 Sep 2018
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4627
Abstract
Changes in land use are reflected primary in changes of land cover, but subsequently cause conflict of interest of sectors and are the main initiation of many environmental problems. The basic tool for sustainable utilization of the landscape is integrated landscape management, which, [...] Read more.
Changes in land use are reflected primary in changes of land cover, but subsequently cause conflict of interest of sectors and are the main initiation of many environmental problems. The basic tool for sustainable utilization of the landscape is integrated landscape management, which, in our understanding, is the environmentally biased harmonization of tools which regulate the spatial organization and functional utilization of the landscape to avoid the conflicts of interest of sectors. “Integrated” in this case means the systematic assessment of the interests of all relevant sectors from the environmental point of view. The scientific base of this approach is the understanding of the landscape as a geosystem, and, in particular, the proper interpretation of the mutual relations of primary, secondary and tertiary landscape structures and their role in the assessment of the conflicts of interest. This paper presents a theoretical and methodical base for the integrated approach to the assessment of the conflicts of interest of the sectors in the landscape. The theoretical-methodical base was applied to the model territory of the Trnava district (south-west Slovakia). Mutual conflicts of interest of endangering and endangered sectors cause diverse problems, which were ranked in three basic groups as: problems of endangering of the ecological stability of the landscape (including endangering of biodiversity and nature conservation areas); problems of endangering of natural resources (in particular forests, soils, waters); and, problems of endangering the immediate human environment (stress factors in residential and recreational areas). The result is the identification and analysis of the conflicts of interest in the territory and their projection to a map. This research should be followed by implementation of procedures of ecologically optimal spatial organization and utilization of the territory for regular spatial planning processes. Full article
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17 pages, 2478 KiB  
Article
An Approach to Study Groundwater Flow Field Evolution Time Scale Effects and Mechanisms
by Dianlong Wang, Guanghui Zhang, Huimin Feng, Jinzhe Wang and Yanliang Tian
Sustainability 2018, 10(9), 2972; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10092972 - 21 Aug 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2681
Abstract
The temporal scale effect is an important issue for groundwater system evolution research. The selection of an appropriate time scale will enhance the understanding of the characteristics and mechanisms of groundwater flow field evolution. In this study, a methodology was provided to analyze [...] Read more.
The temporal scale effect is an important issue for groundwater system evolution research. The selection of an appropriate time scale will enhance the understanding of the characteristics and mechanisms of groundwater flow field evolution. In this study, a methodology was provided to analyze the groundwater system evolution, focusing on the choice of the suitable time step for identifying the distinct stages of evolution, characterized by different behavior linked to the management of the groundwater system. The evolution trend of the groundwater level in the center of the cone of depression at different time scales, combined with the F test and the groundwater system balance index (Re) categories, were used for the choice of the time step and the division of the evolution stages. Based on the transformed groundwater level time series using the selected best time step, the main factors controlling the groundwater evolution were assessed for the different stages. Our results show that the methodology can exactly identify the different important stages of the evolution, and they can be used to individually study these stages, which can help to reveal the mechanisms of the groundwater evolution more easily. Therefore, it is useful to obtain an increased knowledge of the regional groundwater dynamics. Full article
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20 pages, 5103 KiB  
Article
Land Use Changes and Their Driving Forces in a Debris Flow Active Area of Gansu Province, China
by Songtang He, Daojie Wang, Yong Li and Peng Zhao
Sustainability 2018, 10(8), 2759; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10082759 - 04 Aug 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3718
Abstract
Land use change is extremely sensitive to natural factors and human influence in active debris flow. It is therefore necessary to determine the factors that influence land use change. This paper took Wudu District, Gansu Province, China as a study area, and a [...] Read more.
Land use change is extremely sensitive to natural factors and human influence in active debris flow. It is therefore necessary to determine the factors that influence land use change. This paper took Wudu District, Gansu Province, China as a study area, and a systemic analysis of the transformational extent and rate of debris flow waste-shoal land (DFWSL) was carried out from 2005 to 2015. The results show that from 2005 to 2015, cultivated land resources transformed to other types of land; cultivated lands mainly transformed to grassland from 2005 to 2010 and construction land from 2010 to 2015. Moreover, the growth rate of construction land from 2005 to 2010 was only 0.11%, but increased to 6.87% between 2010 and 2015. The latter is more than 60 times the former. This increase was brought about by natural disasters (debris flow, earthquakes, and landslides) and anthropogenic factors (national policies or strategies), which acted as driving forces in debris flow area. The former determines the initial use type of the DFWSL while the latter only affects the direction of land use and transformation. Full article
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19 pages, 40842 KiB  
Article
Temporal Stability of Groundwater Depth in the Contemporary Yellow River Delta, Eastern China
by Ruiyan Wang, Simon Huston, Yuhuan Li, Huiping Ma, Yang Peng and Lihua Ding
Sustainability 2018, 10(7), 2224; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10072224 - 28 Jun 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3059
Abstract
Sustainable development calls for the wise use of groundwater resources. Of particular concern is saline intrusion into productive agricultural land, which is contiguous with densely populated coastal settlements. To reverse saline intrusion in such coastal regions, information about the groundwater depth in terms [...] Read more.
Sustainable development calls for the wise use of groundwater resources. Of particular concern is saline intrusion into productive agricultural land, which is contiguous with densely populated coastal settlements. To reverse saline intrusion in such coastal regions, information about the groundwater depth in terms of its spatio-temporal variability is essential. Using survey data from 2004 to 2007, the research revealed the temporal variation characteristics of groundwater depth in the Contemporary Yellow River Delta. It explored the temporal stability characteristics of groundwater depth by using the coefficient of variation, Spearman rank correlation coefficient, and average relative deviation and standard deviation, and confirmed that the representative point reflected the average groundwater depth of the study area. Results showed that spatial variation of the groundwater depth in the study area was medium, but the variation coefficient of groundwater depth showed the seasonal changes. The spatial variation coefficient was largest in the dry season; the other months were relatively stable. The groundwater depth in the study area had strong temporal stability. The correlation between the Spearman rank correlation coefficient and the time lags showed that the spatial pattern of groundwater depth in the study area was similar across two or three years but the similarity weakened beyond this period. The representative points of the whole area showed a good linear correlation, and were spatially concentrated. In different years or time periods, the representative points were not the same but belonged to the medium groundwater depth grade in the area. The study provides useful guidance for Yellow River irrigation, preventing saline intrusion and the restoration of saline-alkali soils. It offers a theoretical basis for identifying regional satellite groundwater depth monitoring points. Full article
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13 pages, 438 KiB  
Article
Land Eco-Security Assessment Based on the Multi-Dimensional Connection Cloud Model
by Qiuyan Liu, Mingwu Wang, Xiao Wang, Fengqiang Shen and Juliang Jin
Sustainability 2018, 10(6), 2096; https://doi.org/10.3390/su10062096 - 20 Jun 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3012
Abstract
The evaluation of land eco-security is challenging because it is involved with various uncertainty factors. Although the normal cloud model provides an idea for dealing with the randomness and fuzziness of indicators for the evaluation of land eco-security, it cannot simulate the distribution [...] Read more.
The evaluation of land eco-security is challenging because it is involved with various uncertainty factors. Although the normal cloud model provides an idea for dealing with the randomness and fuzziness of indicators for the evaluation of land eco-security, it cannot simulate the distribution state of the evaluation indicators in a finite interval and their calculation process is complicated for multi-factor problems. Herein, a novel multi-dimensional connection cloud model is discussed to remedy these defects. In this model, combined with the range of evaluation factors in each grade, the identity-discrepancy-contrary principle of set pair theory is adopted to determine the digital characteristics of the multi-dimensional cloud model, which can uniformly describe the certainty and uncertainty relationships between the measured indices and the evaluation criteria and also improve the fuzzy-randomness of evaluation indicators closer to the actual distribution characteristics. The case study and the comparison of the proposed model with the normal cloud model and the matter element model were performed to confirm the validity and reliability of the proposed model. Results show that this model can overcome the subjectivity in determining the digital characteristics of the normal cloud model, providing a novel method for the comprehensive evaluation of land eco-security. Full article
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