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Ultrasound Transducers
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Ultrasound Transducers

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 February 2019) | Viewed by 139820

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Xiaoning Jiang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, 911 Oval Drive, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
Interests: micro/nanofabrication of smart materials and structures; ultrasound sensors and transducers; ultrasound imaging, therapy and sensing; sensors and transducers for extreme environments
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Jianguo Ma

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
Interests: piezoelectric ultrasound transducers; multi-frequency ultrasound transducers; optical ultrasound sensing; biomedical ultrasound imaging and therapy; quantitative ultrasound for intelligent diagnosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Acoustics has profoundly affected today’s world in a broad range of technologies, including underwater sonar, audio communication, industrial non-destructive testing (NDT), industrial sensing, chemical and biological sensing, smart city, precision actuation, material processing and manufacturing, medical imaging, medical therapy, etc. Ultrasound transducers, as the converter between mechanical vibrations and electrical signals, have met unprecedented challenges for such a broad range of applications. This Special Issue aims to bring together recent research and developments on materials, design, fabrication, multi-physics transduction, characterization, system integration, and applications of ultrasound transducers.

In this Special Issue, we are looking forward to receiving papers on a wide range of research topics, including, but not limited to, the following themes:

  • Ultrasound transducer materials/metamaterials and structures
  • Design and fabrication of various ultrasound transducers, such as piezoelectric, CMUT, PMUT, PC-MUT, and other types of transducers and transducer arrays
  • Ultrasonic wave involved multi-physics transduction, including photoacoustics, optical fiber-based ultrasonic sensing, micro-ring ultrasonic sensing, magnetoacoustic tomography, etc.
  • Transducer characterization technologies
  • Integration of ultrasonic systems, including electrical excitation, signal processing, impedance matching, ASIC, etc.
  • Applications of ultrasound transducers, including biomedical imaging, therapeutic intervention, NDT, acoustic tweezing, smart electronics, ultrasound gene transfection, acoustic assisted manufacturing, etc.

For this Special Issue, you are welcome to submit review articles or original research associated with ultrasound transducers and their applications. There is a particular interest in papers with novel designs of ultrasound transducers and ultrasonic applications in biology and medicine.

Prof. Dr. Xiaoning Jiang
Dr. Jianguo Ma
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • ultrasound transducers
  • transducer arrays
  • ultrasound transduction
  • micro/nano-fabrication
  • ultrasound systems
  • ultrasound imaging
  • ultrasound therapy
  • smart electronics

Published Papers (30 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3881 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Ultrasonic Energy Diffusion in a Steel Alloy Sample with Tensile Force Using PZT Transducers
by Guangtao Lu, Tao Wang, Mingle Zhou and Yourong Li
Sensors 2019, 19(9), 2185; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19092185 - 11 May 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3610
Abstract
During the propagation of ultrasound in a polycrystalline material, ultrasonic energy losses due to the scattering at the boundaries between grains is usually described by the ultrasonic energy diffusion equation, and the boundaries of the grains in the material are influenced by the [...] Read more.
During the propagation of ultrasound in a polycrystalline material, ultrasonic energy losses due to the scattering at the boundaries between grains is usually described by the ultrasonic energy diffusion equation, and the boundaries of the grains in the material are influenced by the structural load. The aim of this research is to investigate the characterization of ultrasonic energy diffusion in a steel alloy sample under structural load by using lead zirconate titanate (PZT) transducers. To investigate the influence of structural load on ultrasonic energy diffusion, an experimental setup of a steel alloy plate under different tensile forces is designed and four samples with similar dimensions are fabricated. The experimental results of the four samples reveal that, during the loading process, the normalized ultrasonic energy diffusion coefficient fluctuates firstly, then decreases and at last increases as the tensile force increases. The proposed tensile force index shows a similar changing trend to the recorded displacement of the sample. Moreover, when the tensile force is less than the lower yield point or the sample deforms elastically, the index can be approximated by a cubic model. Therefore, the proposed tensile force index can be used to monitor the tensile force in the elastic deformation stage. Moreover, based on these findings, some force evaluation methods and their potential applications, such as the preloading detection of bolts, can be developed based on the linear relationships between the proposed index and the applied force. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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11 pages, 3961 KiB  
Article
A Novel Racing Array Transducer for Noninvasive Ultrasonic Retinal Stimulation: A Simulation Study
by Yanyan Yu, Zhiqiang Zhang, Feiyan Cai, Min Su, Qiuju Jiang, Qifa Zhou, Mark S. Humayun, Weibao Qiu and Hairong Zheng
Sensors 2019, 19(8), 1825; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19081825 - 17 Apr 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3998
Abstract
Neurostimulation has proved to be an effective method for the restoration of visual perception lost due to retinal diseases. However, the clinically available retinal neurostimulation method is based on invasive electrodes, making it a high-cost and high-risk procedure. Recently, ultrasound has been demonstrated [...] Read more.
Neurostimulation has proved to be an effective method for the restoration of visual perception lost due to retinal diseases. However, the clinically available retinal neurostimulation method is based on invasive electrodes, making it a high-cost and high-risk procedure. Recently, ultrasound has been demonstrated to be an effective way to achieve noninvasive neurostimulation. In this work, a novel racing array transducer with a contact lens shape is proposed for ultrasonic retinal stimulation. The transducer is flexible and placed outside the eyeball, similar to the application of a contact lens. Ultrasound emitted from the transducer can reach the retina without passing through the lens, thus greatly minimizing the acoustic absorption in the lens. The discretized Rayleigh–Sommerfeld method was employed for the acoustic field simulation, and patterned stimulation was achieved. A 5 MHz racing array transducer with different element numbers was simulated to optimize the array configuration. The results show that a 512-element racing array is the most appropriate configuration considering the necessary tradeoff between the element number and the stimulation resolution. The stimulation resolution at a focus of 24 mm is about 0.6 mm. The obtained results indicate that the proposed racing array design of the ultrasound transducer can improve the feasibility of an ultrasound retinal prosthesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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16 pages, 8025 KiB  
Article
Ultrasonic Inspection of Localized Defects in Low-Porosity CFRP
by Wei Feng, Xiaojun Zhou, Xiang Zeng and Chenlong Yang
Sensors 2019, 19(7), 1654; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19071654 - 06 Apr 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2571
Abstract
A preliminary backscattered signal model of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminate was established. The backscattered signal model was composed of three sub models, which were concerned with structural signal, scattering signal, and non-acoustic noise. Resonance in structural signal and echoes excited by defects (porosity [...] Read more.
A preliminary backscattered signal model of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminate was established. The backscattered signal model was composed of three sub models, which were concerned with structural signal, scattering signal, and non-acoustic noise. Resonance in structural signal and echoes excited by defects (porosity and rich-resin) were studied. The results showed that: resonance would occur when there was sufficient bandwidth; when the CFRP laminate contained voids, the center frequency of the backscattered signal decreased; and the localized defects, including rich-resin and localized porosity, tended to generate apparent echoes where they located. A simplified backscattered signal model was subsequently put forward, showing certain potential in revealing time-frequency properties of backscattered signals. The newly proposed variational mode decomposition was used for defect modes extraction, successfully avoiding the mode mixing and false modes which easily exist in empirical mode decomposition. Subsequently, the generalized Stockwell transform was adopted for the defects localization. The simulation and experiment denoted the coincidence between the backscattered signal model and the experimental signal, and showed the effectiveness of variational mode decomposition and generalized Stockwell transform in localized defects detection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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11 pages, 2268 KiB  
Article
Bidirectional, Bimodal Ultrasonic Lamb Wave Sensing in a Composite Plate Using a Polarization-Maintaining Fiber Bragg Grating
by Chunfang Rao and Lingze Duan
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1375; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061375 - 19 Mar 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3441
Abstract
Lamb wave (LW) is well suited for structural health monitoring (SHM) in advanced composites. However, characteristic differences between the symmetric modes and the anti-symmetric modes often add complexity to SHM systems. The anisotropic nature of composite materials, on the other hand, necessitates direction-sensitive [...] Read more.
Lamb wave (LW) is well suited for structural health monitoring (SHM) in advanced composites. However, characteristic differences between the symmetric modes and the anti-symmetric modes often add complexity to SHM systems. The anisotropic nature of composite materials, on the other hand, necessitates direction-sensitive sensing. In this paper we report the experimental demonstration of bidirectional (0° and 90°), bimodal (S0 and A0) LW measurement within the frequency range of 20–140 kHz using a polarization-maintaining fiber Bragg grating (PM-FBG) sensor attached to a composite laminated plate. By selectively interrogating the fast and/or the slow axis of the PM-FBG, we show that not only can the sensor respond to LWs propagating along both directions, but the response can also be used to differentiate the two directions. Moreover, the fast axis of the sensor is able to respond to both the S0 and the A0 modes when the sensor is aligned with the wave propagation direction, whereas single S0 mode response can be achieved with the slow axis operating perpendicularly to the wave propagation direction. Such diverse responses indicate the potential of PM-FBGs as versatile multi-parameter SHM detectors, which can effectively address the challenges posed by material anisotropicity and LW mode diversity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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16 pages, 3555 KiB  
Article
Application of Fresnel Zone Plate Focused Beam to Optimized Sensor Design for Pulse-Echo Harmonic Generation Measurements
by Hyunjo Jeong, Hyojeong Shin, Shuzeng Zhang, Xiongbing Li and Sungjong Cho
Sensors 2019, 19(6), 1373; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19061373 - 19 Mar 2019
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3652
Abstract
In nonlinear acoustic measurements involving reflection from the stress-free boundary, the pulse-echo method could not be used because such a boundary is known to destructively change the second harmonic generation (SHG) process. The use of a focusing acoustic beam, however, can improve SHG [...] Read more.
In nonlinear acoustic measurements involving reflection from the stress-free boundary, the pulse-echo method could not be used because such a boundary is known to destructively change the second harmonic generation (SHG) process. The use of a focusing acoustic beam, however, can improve SHG after reflection from the specimen boundary, and nonlinear pulse-echo methods can be implemented as a practical means of measuring the acoustic nonlinear parameter (β) of solid specimens. This paper investigates the optimal sensor design for pulse-echo SHG and β measurements using Fresnel zone plate (FZP) focused beams. The conceptual design of a sensor configuration uses separate transmission and reception, where a broadband receiver is located at the center and a four-element FZP transmitter is positioned outside the receiver to create a focused beam at the specified position in a solid sample. Comprehensive simulations are performed for focused beam fields analysis and to determine the optimal sensor design using various combinations of focal length, receiver size and frequency. It is shown that the optimally designed sensors for 1 cm thick aluminum can produce the second harmonic amplitude and the uncorrected nonlinear parameter corresponding to the through-transmission method. The sensitivity of the optimal sensors to the changes in the designed sound velocity is analyzed and compared between the odd- and even-type FZPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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20 pages, 9358 KiB  
Article
Lamb Wave-Minimum Sampling Variance Particle Filter-Based Fatigue Crack Prognosis
by Weibo Yang and Peiwei Gao
Sensors 2019, 19(5), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051070 - 02 Mar 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3517
Abstract
Fatigue cracks are one of the common failure types of key aircraft components, and they are the focus of prognostics and health management (PHM) systems. Monitoring and prediction of fatigue cracks show great application potential and economic benefit in shortening aircraft downtime, prolonging [...] Read more.
Fatigue cracks are one of the common failure types of key aircraft components, and they are the focus of prognostics and health management (PHM) systems. Monitoring and prediction of fatigue cracks show great application potential and economic benefit in shortening aircraft downtime, prolonging service life, and enhancing maintenance. However, the fatigue crack growth process is a non-linear non-Gaussian dynamic stochastic process, which involves a variety of uncertainties. Actual crack initiation and growth sometimes deviate from the results of fracture mechanics analysis. The Lamb wave-particle filter (LW-PF) fatigue-crack-life prediction based on piezoelectric transducer (PZT) sensors has the advantages of simple modeling and on-line prediction, making it suitable for engineering applications. Although the resampling algorithm of the standard particle filter (PF) can solve the degradation problem, the discretization error still exists. To alleviate the accuracy decrease caused by the discretization error, a Lamb wave-minimum sampling variance particle filter (LW-MSVPF)-based fatigue crack life prediction method is proposed and validated by fatigue test of the attachment lug in this paper. Sampling variance (SV) is used as a quantitative index to analyze the difference of particle distribution before and after resampling. Compared with the LW-PF method, LW-MSVPF can increase the prediction accuracy with the same computational cost. By using the minimum sampling variance (MSV) resampling method, the original particle distribution is retained to a maximum degree, and the discretization error is significantly reduced. Furthermore, LW-MSVPF maintains the characteristic of dimensional freedom, which means a broader application in on-line prognosis for more complex structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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12 pages, 4147 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Microwave Ablation Using Ultrasound Echo Decorrelation Imaging: An ex vivo Study
by Zhuhuang Zhou, Yue Wang, Shuang Song, Weiwei Wu, Shuicai Wu and Po-Hsiang Tsui
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040977 - 25 Feb 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4416
Abstract
In this study, a microwave-induced ablation zone (thermal lesion) monitoring method based on ultrasound echo decorrelation imaging was proposed. A total of 15 cases of ex vivo porcine liver microwave ablation (MWA) experiments were carried out. Ultrasound radiofrequency (RF) signals at different times [...] Read more.
In this study, a microwave-induced ablation zone (thermal lesion) monitoring method based on ultrasound echo decorrelation imaging was proposed. A total of 15 cases of ex vivo porcine liver microwave ablation (MWA) experiments were carried out. Ultrasound radiofrequency (RF) signals at different times during MWA were acquired using a commercial clinical ultrasound scanner with a 7.5-MHz linear-array transducer. Instantaneous and cumulative echo decorrelation images of two adjacent frames of RF data were calculated. Polynomial approximation images were obtained on the basis of the thresholded cumulative echo decorrelation images. Experimental results showed that the instantaneous echo decorrelation images outperformed conventional B-mode images in monitoring microwave-induced thermal lesions. Using gross pathology measurements as the reference standard, the estimation of thermal lesions using the polynomial approximation images yielded an average accuracy of 88.60%. We concluded that instantaneous ultrasound echo decorrelation imaging is capable of monitoring the change of thermal lesions during MWA, and cumulative ultrasound echo decorrelation imaging and polynomial approximation imaging are feasible for quantitatively depicting thermal lesions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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18 pages, 6313 KiB  
Article
Orthogonal Chirp Coded Excitation in a Capacitive Micro-machined Ultrasonic Transducer Array for Ultrasound Imaging: A Feasibility Study
by Bae-Hyung Kim, Seungheun Lee and Kang-Sik Kim
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040883 - 20 Feb 2019
Viewed by 4776
Abstract
It has been reported that the frequency bandwidth of capacitive micro-machined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) is relatively broader than that of other ceramic-based conventional ultrasonic transducers. In this paper, a feasibility study for orthogonal chirp coded excitation to efficiently make use of the wide [...] Read more.
It has been reported that the frequency bandwidth of capacitive micro-machined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) is relatively broader than that of other ceramic-based conventional ultrasonic transducers. In this paper, a feasibility study for orthogonal chirp coded excitation to efficiently make use of the wide bandwidth characteristic of CMUT array is presented. The experimental result shows that the two orthogonal chirps mixed and simultaneously fired in CMUT array can be perfectly separated in decoding process of the received echo signal without sacrificing the frequency bandwidth each chirp. The experimental study also shows that frequency band-divided orthogonal chirps are successfully compressed to two short pulses having the −6 dB axial beam-width of 0.26- and 0.31-micro second for high frequency and low frequency chirp, respectively. B-mode image simulations are performed using Field II to estimate the improvement of image quality assuming that the orthogonal chirps designed for the experiments are used for simultaneous transmission multiple-zone focusing (STMF) technique. The simulation results show that the STMF technique used in CMUT array can improve the lateral resolution up to 77.1% and the contrast resolution up to 74.7%, respectively. It is shown that the penetration depth also increases by more than 3 cm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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14 pages, 5577 KiB  
Article
An Analysis Method for Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer (CMUT) Energy Conversion during Large Signal Operation
by Amirabbas Pirouz and F. Levent Degertekin
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 876; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040876 - 20 Feb 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3867
Abstract
With Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducers (CMUTs) increasingly being used for high intensity, large signal ultrasound applications and several drive methods being proposed, the efficiency of these devices in this operation regime have not been quantitatively evaluated. Since well-known frequency and capacitance-based coupling coefficients [...] Read more.
With Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasound Transducers (CMUTs) increasingly being used for high intensity, large signal ultrasound applications and several drive methods being proposed, the efficiency of these devices in this operation regime have not been quantitatively evaluated. Since well-known frequency and capacitance-based coupling coefficients definitions are not valid for large signal, nonlinear operation, an energy-based definition should be used. In this paper, an expression for mechanical energy in a CMUT is obtained based on the assumption that CMUT is a linear time varying capacitor in all regimes of operation. This expression is evaluated by the help of an experimentally verified nonlinear CMUT model to define an energy conversion ratio (ECR) which can be considered as a coupling coefficient valid for all regimes of operation. This parameter is validated in the small signal regime and then used to evaluate CMUT performance with various large drive signals. The quantitative modeling results show that CMUTs do not need DC bias to achieve high efficiency large signal transduction: AC only signals at half the operation frequency with amplitudes beyond the collapse voltage can provide efficiencies (ECR) above 0.9 with harmonic content below −25 dB. Based on these results, ECR variation with membrane geometry and parasitic capacitance are given as examples for device optimization. The overall modeling approach is also qualitatively validated by experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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17 pages, 1421 KiB  
Article
Acoustic Field Characterization of Medical Array Transducers Based on Unfocused Transmits and Single-Plane Hydrophone Measurements
by Torben Marhenke, Sergio J. Sanabria, Bhaskara Rao Chintada, Roman Furrer, Jürg Neuenschwander and Orcun Goksel
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040863 - 19 Feb 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6076
Abstract
Medical ultrasonic arrays are typically characterized in controlled water baths using measurements by a hydrophone, which can be translated with a positioning stage. Characterization of 3D acoustic fields conventionally requires measurements at each spatial location, which is tedious and time-consuming, and may be [...] Read more.
Medical ultrasonic arrays are typically characterized in controlled water baths using measurements by a hydrophone, which can be translated with a positioning stage. Characterization of 3D acoustic fields conventionally requires measurements at each spatial location, which is tedious and time-consuming, and may be prohibitive given limitations of experimental setup (e.g., the bath and stage) and measurement equipment (i.e., the hydrophone). Moreover, with the development of new ultrasound sequences and modalities, multiple measurements are often required to characterize each imaging mode to ensure performance and clinical safety. Acoustic holography allows efficient characterization of source transducer fields based on single plane measurements. In this work, we explore the applicability of a re-radiation method based on the Rayleigh–Sommerfeld integral to medical imaging array characterization. We show that source fields can be reconstructed at single crystal level at wavelength resolution, based on far-field measurements. This is herein presented for three practical application scenarios: for identifying faulty transducer elements; for characterizing acoustic safety parameters in focused ultrasound sequences from 2D planar measurements; and for estimating arbitrary focused fields based on calibration from an unfocused sound field and software beamforming. The results experimentally show that the acquired pressure fields closely match those estimated using our technique. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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18 pages, 3076 KiB  
Article
Resonating Shell: A Spherical-Omnidirectional Ultrasound Transducer for Underwater Sensor Networks
by Sina Sadeghpour, Sebastian Meyers, Jean-Pierre Kruth, Jozef Vleugels, Michael Kraft and Robert Puers
Sensors 2019, 19(4), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19040757 - 13 Feb 2019
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5149
Abstract
This paper presents the design and fabrication process of a spherical-omnidirectional ultrasound transducer for underwater sensor network applications. The transducer is based on the vibration of two hemispheres with a thickness of 1 mm and an outer diameter of 10 mm, which are [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design and fabrication process of a spherical-omnidirectional ultrasound transducer for underwater sensor network applications. The transducer is based on the vibration of two hemispheres with a thickness of 1 mm and an outer diameter of 10 mm, which are actuated by two piezoelectric ring elements. Since the ultrasound wave is generated by the vibration of the two hemispheres, a matching layer is not required. Silicon Carbide (SiC) is used as the material of the hemispherical shells of the transducer. The shells were fabricated by laser sintering as an additive manufacturing method, in which the hemispheres were built layer by layer from a powder bed. All manufactured transducers with an outer dimension of 10 × 14.2 mm and a center frequency of 155 kHz were measured in a water tank by a hydrophone or in mutual communication. The circumferential source level was measured to vary less than 5dB. The power consumption and the insertion loss of the transducer, ranging from 100 μ W to 2.4 mW and 21.2 dB, respectively, along with all other measurements, prove that the transducer can transmit and receive ultrasound waves omnidirectionally at tens of centimeters intervals with a decent power consumption and low actuation voltage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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13 pages, 3075 KiB  
Article
Design, Fabrication, and Evaluation of Multifocal Point Transducer for High-Frequency Ultrasound Applications
by Thanh Phuoc Nguyen, Nguyen Thanh Phong Truong, Nhat Quang Bui, Van Tu Nguyen, Giang Hoang, Jaeyeop Choi, Thi Tuong Vy Phan, Van Hiep Pham, Byung-Gak Kim and Junghwan Oh
Sensors 2019, 19(3), 609; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030609 - 01 Feb 2019
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5517
Abstract
The present study illustrates the design, fabrication, and evaluation of a novel multifocal point (MFP) transducer based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film for high-frequency ultrasound application. The fabricated MFP surface was press-focused using a computer numerical control (CNC) machining tool-customized multi-spherical pattern object. [...] Read more.
The present study illustrates the design, fabrication, and evaluation of a novel multifocal point (MFP) transducer based on polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film for high-frequency ultrasound application. The fabricated MFP surface was press-focused using a computer numerical control (CNC) machining tool-customized multi-spherical pattern object. The multi-spherical pattern has five spherical surfaces with equal area and connected continuously to have the same energy level at focal points. Center points of these spheres are distributed in a linear pattern with 1 mm distance between each two points. The radius of these spheres increases steadily from 10 mm to 13.86 mm. The designed MFP transducer had a center frequency of 50 MHz and a −6 dB bandwidth of 68%. The wire phantom test was conducted to study and demonstrate the advantages of this novel design. The obtained results for MFP transducer revealed a significant increase (4.3 mm) of total focal zone in the near-field and far-field area compared with 0.48 mm obtained using the conventional single focal point transducer. Hence, the proposed method is promising to fabricate MFP transducers for deeper imaging depth applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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12 pages, 2385 KiB  
Article
Laser Ultrasound Inspection Based on Wavelet Transform and Data Clustering for Defect Estimation in Metallic Samples
by Hossam Selim, Miguel Delgado Prieto, José Trull, Luis Romeral and Crina Cojocaru
Sensors 2019, 19(3), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19030573 - 30 Jan 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4677
Abstract
Laser-generated ultrasound is a modern non-destructive testing technique. It has been investigated over recent years as an alternative to classical ultrasonic methods, mainly in industrial maintenance and quality control procedures. In this study, the detection and reconstruction of internal defects in a metallic [...] Read more.
Laser-generated ultrasound is a modern non-destructive testing technique. It has been investigated over recent years as an alternative to classical ultrasonic methods, mainly in industrial maintenance and quality control procedures. In this study, the detection and reconstruction of internal defects in a metallic sample is performed by means of a time-frequency analysis of ultrasonic waves generated by a laser-induced thermal mechanism. In the proposed methodology, we used wavelet transform due to its multi-resolution time frequency characteristics. In order to isolate and estimate the corresponding time of flight of eventual ultrasonic echoes related to internal defects, a density-based spatial clustering was applied to the resulting time frequency maps. Using the laser scan beam’s position, the ultrasonic transducer’s location and the echoes’ arrival times were determined, the estimation of the defect’s position was carried out afterwards. Finally, clustering algorithms were applied to the resulting geometric solutions from the set of the laser scan points which was proposed to obtain a two-dimensional projection of the defect outline over the scan plane. The study demonstrates that the proposed method of wavelet transform ultrasonic imaging can be effectively applied to detect and size internal defects without any reference information, which represents a valuable outcome for various applications in the industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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8 pages, 2279 KiB  
Article
Dual-Modal In Vivo Fluorescence/Photoacoustic Microscopy Imaging of Inflammation Induced by GFP-Expressing Bacteria
by Yubin Liu, Lei Fu, Mengze Xu, Jun Zheng and Zhen Yuan
Sensors 2019, 19(2), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19020238 - 10 Jan 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4011
Abstract
In this study, dual-modal fluorescence and photoacoustic microscopy was performed for noninvasive and functional in vivo imaging of inflammation induced by green fluorescent protein (GFP) transfected bacteria in mice ear. Our imaging results demonstrated that the multimodal imaging technique is able to monitor [...] Read more.
In this study, dual-modal fluorescence and photoacoustic microscopy was performed for noninvasive and functional in vivo imaging of inflammation induced by green fluorescent protein (GFP) transfected bacteria in mice ear. Our imaging results demonstrated that the multimodal imaging technique is able to monitor the tissue immunovascular responses to infections with molecular specificity. Our study also indicated that the combination of photoacoustic and fluorescence microscopy imaging can simultaneously track the biochemical changes including the bacterial distribution and morphological change of blood vessels in the biological tissues with high resolution and enhanced sensitivity. Consequently, the developed method paves a new avenue for improving the understanding of the pathology mechanism of inflammation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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16 pages, 7021 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of a Piezo-Actuated Sensor for Monitoring Elastic Variations of Its Support with Impedance-Based Measurements
by Hector A. Tinoco, Carlos I. Cardona, Fabio M. Peña, Juan P. Gomez, Samuel I. Roldan-Restrepo, Maria A. Velasco-Mejia and Daniel R. Barco
Sensors 2019, 19(1), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19010184 - 07 Jan 2019
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4112
Abstract
This study exposes the assessment of a piezo-actuated sensor for monitoring elastic variations (change in Young’s modulus) of a host structure in which it is attached. The host structure is monitored through a coupling interface connected to the piezo-actuated device. Two coupling interfaces [...] Read more.
This study exposes the assessment of a piezo-actuated sensor for monitoring elastic variations (change in Young’s modulus) of a host structure in which it is attached. The host structure is monitored through a coupling interface connected to the piezo-actuated device. Two coupling interfaces were considered (an aluminum cone and a human tooth) for the experimental tests. Three different materials (aluminum, bronze and steel) were prepared to emulate the elastic changes in the support, keeping the geometry as a fixed parameter. The piezo device was characterized from velocity frequency response functions in pursuance to understand how vibration modes stimulate the electrical resistance through electrical resonance peaks of the sensor. An impedance-based analysis (1–20 kHz) was performed to correlate elastic variations with indexes based on root mean square deviation (RMSD) for two observation windows (9.3 to 9.7 kHz and 11.1 to 11.5 kHz). Results show that imposed elastic variations were detected and quantified with the electrical resistance measurements. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the sensitivity of the device was influenced by the type of coupling interface since the cone was more sensitive than the tooth in both observation windows. As a final consideration, results suggest that bio-structures (fruits and bone, among others) could be studied since these can modify naturally its elastic properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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13 pages, 4900 KiB  
Article
Fast Measurement of Magnetostriction Coefficients for Silicon Steel Strips Using Magnetostriction-Based EMAT
by Weiping Ren, Ke Xu and Peng Zhou
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4495; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124495 - 19 Dec 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4118
Abstract
Strain gauges and optical methods are commonly used to measure the magnetostriction coefficient of a sample. All these methods require a specific size sample and can only realize offline measurement, which is time-consuming. Therefore, we propose a new method using a magnetostriction-based electromagnetic [...] Read more.
Strain gauges and optical methods are commonly used to measure the magnetostriction coefficient of a sample. All these methods require a specific size sample and can only realize offline measurement, which is time-consuming. Therefore, we propose a new method using a magnetostriction-based electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) to measure the magnetostriction coefficient. The amplitude of the ultrasonic waves generated by the EMAT is applied to characterize the magnetostriction coefficient of a sample. A nonlinear magnetostriction finite element model is established, and the simulation results show that the amplitude of the ultrasonic wave generated by the magnetostriction-based EMAT is proportional to the magnetostriction coefficient of the material. Experiments are carried out on silicon steel strips with different silicon contents. The results show that the method can effectively measure their relative magnetostriction coefficients. Furthermore, the structure of the magnetostriction-based EMAT is optimized to maximize efficiency. The excitation and receiving transducers reach their maximum efficiency when the static magnetic flux densities are 3.5 mT and 6.8 mT, respectively. Moreover, the relative error caused by the vibration reaches the minimal size when the lift-off of the receiving coil is set to 3 mm around. This method is fast and can be applied to online measurement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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15 pages, 2593 KiB  
Article
Design of a Piezoelectric Multilayered Structure for Ultrasound Sensors Using the Equivalent Circuit Method
by Muhammad Shakeel Afzal, Hayeong Shim and Yongrae Roh
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4491; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124491 - 18 Dec 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4877
Abstract
This study investigates the electroacoustic behavior of a piezoelectric multilayered structure for ultrasonic sensors using the equivalent circuit method (ECM). We first derived the vertical deflection of the multilayered structure as a function of pressure and voltage using equilibrium equations of the structure. [...] Read more.
This study investigates the electroacoustic behavior of a piezoelectric multilayered structure for ultrasonic sensors using the equivalent circuit method (ECM). We first derived the vertical deflection of the multilayered structure as a function of pressure and voltage using equilibrium equations of the structure. The deflection derived in this work is novel in that it includes the effect of piezoelectricity as well as the external pressure on the radiating surface. Subsequently, the circuit parameters were derived from the vertical deflection. The acoustic characteristics of the structure were then analyzed using the electro-acoustical model of an ultrasonic sensor for in-air application. Using the equivalent circuit, we analyzed the effects of various structural parameters on the acoustic properties of the structure such as resonance frequency, radiated sound pressure, and beam pattern. The validity of the ECM was verified initially by comparing the results with those from the finite element analysis (FEA) of the same structure. Furthermore, experimental testing of an actual ultrasonic sensor was carried out to verify the efficacy of the ECM. The ECM presented in this study can estimate the performance characteristics of a piezoelectric multilayered structure with high rapidity and efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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16 pages, 6643 KiB  
Article
Development of High-Frequency (>60 MHz) Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) Transducer by Using Asymmetric Electrodes for Improved Beam Profile
by Jin Ho Sung and Jong Seob Jeong
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4414; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124414 - 13 Dec 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4927
Abstract
In most commercial single-element intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) transducers, with 20 MHz to 40 MHz center frequencies, a conductive adhesive is used to bond a micro-sized cable for the signal line to the surface of the transducer aperture (<1 mm × 1 mm size) [...] Read more.
In most commercial single-element intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) transducers, with 20 MHz to 40 MHz center frequencies, a conductive adhesive is used to bond a micro-sized cable for the signal line to the surface of the transducer aperture (<1 mm × 1 mm size) where ultrasound beam is generated. Therefore, the vibration of the piezoelectric layer is significantly disturbed by the adhesive with the signal line, thereby causing problems, such as reduced sensitivity, shortened penetration depth, and distorted beam profile. This phenomenon becomes more serious as the center frequency of the IVUS transducer is increased, and the aperture size becomes small. Therefore, we propose a novel IVUS acoustic stack employing asymmetric electrodes with conductive and non-conductive backing blocks. The purpose of this study is to verify the extent of performance degradation caused by the adhesive with the signal line, and to demonstrate how much performance degradation can be minimized by the proposed scheme. Finite element analysis (FEA) simulation was conducted, and the results show that −3 dB, −6 dB, and −10 dB penetration depths of the conventional transducer were shortened by 20%, 25%, and 19% respectively, while those of the proposed transducer were reduced only 3%, 4%, and 0% compared with their ideal transducers which have the same effective aperture size. Besides, the proposed transducer improved the −3 dB, −6 dB, and −10 dB penetration depths by 15%, 12%, and 10% respectively, compared with the conventional transducer. We also fabricated a 60 MHz IVUS transducer by using the proposed technique, and high-resolution IVUS B-mode (brightness mode) images were obtained. Thus, the proposed scheme can be one of the potential ways to provide more uniform beam profile resulting in improving the signal to noise ratio (SNR) in IVUS image. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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17 pages, 8812 KiB  
Article
Transformerless Ultrasonic Ranging System with the Feature of Intrinsic Safety for Explosive Environment
by Yu Wang, Yuheng Qiao, Hongjuan Zhang, Yan Gao, Ming Zhang, Heng Tan, Dong Wang and Baoquan Jin
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4397; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124397 - 12 Dec 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4457
Abstract
The transformer used in the conventional ultrasonic ranging system could provide a huge instantaneous driving voltage for the generation of ultrasonic wave, which leads to the safety problem in the explosive mixture. This paper proposes a transformerless ultrasonic ranging system powered by the [...] Read more.
The transformer used in the conventional ultrasonic ranging system could provide a huge instantaneous driving voltage for the generation of ultrasonic wave, which leads to the safety problem in the explosive mixture. This paper proposes a transformerless ultrasonic ranging system powered by the intrinsically safe power source and analog switches. The analysis of intrinsic characteristics of ultrasonic driving circuit is realized in normal and fault conditions. The echo-processing circuit combined with LIN bus technology is further adopted in order to improve the system stability. After the analysis of the timing diagram of ranging instruction, the evaluation experiments of ranging accuracy and ranging stability are completed. The results show that the system can realize reliable bidirectional communication between the LIN master node circuit and the ultrasonic transceiver unit, which realizes the transformerless driving. The system can realize the distance measurement within the range of 250–2700 mm, and the measurement error is less than 30 mm. The measurement fluctuation is less than 10 mm, which provides a new solution for the ultrasonic ranging system in the potentially explosive atmosphere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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12 pages, 5638 KiB  
Article
Development of a Highly Sensitive Humidity Sensor Based on a Piezoelectric Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer Array Functionalized with Graphene Oxide Thin Film
by Changhe Sun, Qiongfeng Shi, Mahmut Sami Yazici, Chengkuo Lee and Yufei Liu
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4352; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124352 - 10 Dec 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5227
Abstract
A novel relative humidity sensor that is based on a linear piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (pMUT) array was proposed and microfabricated for high sensitivity, fast response, and good stability. The humidity-sensitive graphene oxide (GO) film was deposited on the pMUT array with a [...] Read more.
A novel relative humidity sensor that is based on a linear piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (pMUT) array was proposed and microfabricated for high sensitivity, fast response, and good stability. The humidity-sensitive graphene oxide (GO) film was deposited on the pMUT array with a facile drop-casting method and characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), and Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR). With the humidity level ranging from 10% to 90% RH, the sensor exhibited a high sensitivity of 719 Hz/% RH and an extremely high relative sensitivity of 271.1 ppm/% RH. The humidity-sensing results also showed good short-term repeatability and long-term stability, fast response and recovery, and low hysteresis. Moreover, the temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) of the present humidity sensor was investigated and it could be easily compensated owing to the pMUT array structure design. This work confirmed that the GO functionalized pMUT is an excellent candidate in humidity detection and it may enable many potential applications, such as ultrasensitive mass detection and simultaneous detection of multiple parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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18 pages, 9434 KiB  
Article
Ultrasonic Transmission Tomography Sensor Design for Bubble Identification in Gas-Liquid Bubble Column Reactors
by Nan Li, Mingchen Cao, Kun Xu, Jiabin Jia and Hangben Du
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4256; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124256 - 04 Dec 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6574
Abstract
Scientists require methods to monitor the distribution of gas bubbles in gas-liquid bubble column reactors. One non-destructive method that can potential satisfy this requirement in industrial situations is ultrasonic transmission tomography (UTT). In this paper, an ultrasonic transmission tomography sensor is designed for [...] Read more.
Scientists require methods to monitor the distribution of gas bubbles in gas-liquid bubble column reactors. One non-destructive method that can potential satisfy this requirement in industrial situations is ultrasonic transmission tomography (UTT). In this paper, an ultrasonic transmission tomography sensor is designed for measuring bubble distribution in a reactor. Factors that influence the transducer design include transmission energy loss, the resonance characteristics and vibration modes of the transducer, and diffusion angles of the transducers, which are discussed. For practical application, it was found that an excitation frequency of 300 kHz could identify the location and size of gas bubbles. The vibration mode and diffusion also directly affect the quality of the imaging. The geometric parameters of the transducer (a cylinder transducer with a 10 mm diameter and 6.7 mm thickness) are designed to achieve the performance requirements. A UTT system, based on these parameters, was built in order to verify the effectiveness of the designed ultrasonic transducer array. A Sector-diffusion-matrix based Linear Back Projection (SLBP) was used to reconstruct the gas/liquid two-phase flow from the obtained measurements. Two other image processing methods, based on SLBP algorithm named SLBP-HR (SLBP-Hybrid Reconstruction) and SLBP-ATF (SLBP-Adaptive Threshold Filtering), were introduced, and the imaging results are presented. The imaging results indicate that a gas bubble with a 3 mm radius can be identified from reconstructed images, and that three different flow patterns, namely, single gas bubble, double gas bubble with different diameters, and eccentric flow, can be identified from reconstructed images. This demonstrates that the designed UTT sensor can effectively measure bubble distribution in gas-liquid bubble column reactors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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13 pages, 2725 KiB  
Article
High-Resolution Shear Wave Imaging of the Human Cornea Using a Dual-Element Transducer
by Pei-Yu Chen, Cho-Chiang Shih, Wei-Chen Lin, Teng Ma, Qifa Zhou, K. Kirk Shung and Chih-Chung Huang
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4244; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124244 - 03 Dec 2018
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3754
Abstract
Estimating the corneal elasticity can provide valuable information for corneal pathologies and treatments. Ophthalmologic pathologies will invariably cause changes to the elasticity of the cornea. For example, keratoconus and the phototoxic effects of ultraviolet radiation usually increase the corneal elasticity. This makes a [...] Read more.
Estimating the corneal elasticity can provide valuable information for corneal pathologies and treatments. Ophthalmologic pathologies will invariably cause changes to the elasticity of the cornea. For example, keratoconus and the phototoxic effects of ultraviolet radiation usually increase the corneal elasticity. This makes a quantitative estimation of the elasticity of the human cornea important for ophthalmic diagnoses. The present study investigated the use of a proposed high-resolution shear wave imaging (HR-SWI) method based on a dual-element transducer (comprising an 8-MHz element for pushing and a 32-MHz element for imaging) for measuring the group shear wave velocity (GSWV) of the human cornea. An empirical Young’s modulus formula was used to accurately convert the GSWV to Young’s modulus. Four quantitative parameters, bias, resolution, contrast, and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), were measured in gelatin phantoms with two different concentrations (3% and 7%) to evaluate the performance of HR-SWI. The biases of gelatin phantoms (3% and 7%) were 5.88% and 0.78%, respectively. The contrast and CNR were 0.76, 1.31 and 3.22, 2.43 for the two-side and two-layer phantoms, respectively. The measured image resolutions of HR-SWI in the lateral and axial directions were 72 and 140 μm, respectively. The calculated phase SWV (PSWV) and their corresponding Young’s modulus from six human donors were 2.45 ± 0.48 m/s (1600 Hz) and 11.52 ± 7.81 kPa, respectively. All the experimental results validated the concept of HR-SWI and its ability for measuring the human corneal elasticity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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20 pages, 8672 KiB  
Article
2-D Minimum Variance Based Plane Wave Compounding with Generalized Coherence Factor in Ultrafast Ultrasound Imaging
by Yanxing Qi, Yuanyuan Wang, Jinhua Yu and Yi Guo
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4099; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124099 - 23 Nov 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3906
Abstract
Plane wave compounding (PWC) is an effective modality for ultrafast ultrasound imaging. It can provide higher resolution and better noise reduction than plane wave imaging (PWI). In this paper, a novel beamformer integrating the two-dimensional (2-D) minimum variance (MV) with the generalized coherence [...] Read more.
Plane wave compounding (PWC) is an effective modality for ultrafast ultrasound imaging. It can provide higher resolution and better noise reduction than plane wave imaging (PWI). In this paper, a novel beamformer integrating the two-dimensional (2-D) minimum variance (MV) with the generalized coherence factor (GCF) is proposed to maintain the high resolution and contrast along with a high frame rate for PWC. To specify, MV beamforming is adopted in both the transmitting aperture and the receiving one. The subarray technique is therefore upgraded into the sub-matrix division. Then, the output of each submatrix is used to adaptively compute the GCF using a 2-D fast Fourier transform (FFT). After the 2-D MV beamforming and the 2-D GCF weighting, the final output can be obtained. Results of simulations, phantom experiments, and in vivo studies confirm the advantages of the proposed method. Compared with the delay-and-sum (DAS) beamformer, the full width at half maximum (FWHM) is 90% smaller and the contrast ratio (CR) improvement is 154% in simulations. The over-suppression of desired signals, which is a typical drawback of the coherence factor (CF), can be effectively avoided. The robustness against sound velocity errors is also enhanced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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12 pages, 4158 KiB  
Article
A 40-MHz Ultrasound Transducer with an Angled Aperture for Guiding Percutaneous Revascularization of Chronic Total Occlusion: A Feasibility Study
by Junsu Lee and Jin Ho Chang
Sensors 2018, 18(11), 4079; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18114079 - 21 Nov 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4026
Abstract
Complete blockage of a coronary artery, called chronic total occlusion (CTO), frequently occurs due to atherosclerosis. To reopen the obstructed blood vessels with a stent, guidewire crossing is performed with the help of angiography that can provide the location of CTO lesions and [...] Read more.
Complete blockage of a coronary artery, called chronic total occlusion (CTO), frequently occurs due to atherosclerosis. To reopen the obstructed blood vessels with a stent, guidewire crossing is performed with the help of angiography that can provide the location of CTO lesions and the image of guidewire tip. Since angiography is incapable of imaging inside a CTO lesion, the surgeons are blind during guidewire crossing. For this reason, the success rate of guidewire crossing relies upon the proficiency of the surgeon, which is considerably reduced from 69.0% to 32.5% if extensive calcification, not penetrated by a guidewire, exists in CTO lesions. In this paper, a recently developed 40-MHz forward-looking intravascular ultrasound (FL–IVUS) transducer to visualize calcification within CTO lesions is reported. This transducer consists of a single element angled aperture and a guidewire passage. The aperture is spherically deformed to have a focal length of 3 mm in order to improve spatial resolution of FL–IVUS images. The angle between the beam direction and the axis of rotation is designed to be 30° to effectively visualize calcification within a CTO lesion as well as the blood vessel wall. The experimental results demonstrated that the developed FL–IVUS transducer facilitates visualization of calcification within CTO lesions and makes it possible to help the surgeon make decisions about whether to push the guidewire in order to cross the lesion or to change the surgical procedure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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15 pages, 2383 KiB  
Article
A New Approach to Guided Wave Ray Tomography for Temperature-Robust Damage Detection Using Piezoelectric Sensors
by Dan Li, Ming Shi, Feng Xu, Chengcheng Liu, Jianqiu Zhang and Dean Ta
Sensors 2018, 18(10), 3518; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103518 - 18 Oct 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2876
Abstract
In this paper, a new approach to guided wave ray tomography for temperature-robust damage detection with time-of-flight (TOF) temperature compensation is developed. Based on the linear relationship between the TOF of a guided wave and temperature, analyses show that the TOF of the [...] Read more.
In this paper, a new approach to guided wave ray tomography for temperature-robust damage detection with time-of-flight (TOF) temperature compensation is developed. Based on the linear relationship between the TOF of a guided wave and temperature, analyses show that the TOF of the baseline signal can be compensated by the temperature measurement of the inspected materials without estimating the temperature compensation parameters. The inversion is based on the optimization of the TOF misfit function between the inspected and compensated baseline TOFs of the guided waves, and is applied by the elastic net penalty approach to perform thickness change mapping in a structural health monitoring (SHM) application. Experiments that are conducted in isotropic plates by piezoelectric sensors demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. According to the results, our approach not only eliminates the artefacts that are caused by a temperature variation from 25 °C to 70 °C but also provides more accurate and clearer imaging of damage than conventional ray tomography methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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9 pages, 3355 KiB  
Article
Fabrication and Characterization of High-Frequency Ultrasound Transducers Based on Lead-Free BNT-BT Tape-Casting Thick Film
by Junshan Zhang, Wei Ren, Yantao Liu, Xiaoqing Wu, Chunlong Fei, Yi Quan and Qifa Zhou
Sensors 2018, 18(9), 3166; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18093166 - 19 Sep 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4701
Abstract
A lead-free 0.94(Na0.5Bi0.5) TiO3-0.06 BaTiO3 (BNT-BT) thick film, with a thickness of 60 μm, has been fabricated using a tape-casting method. The longitudinal piezoelectric constant, clamped dielectric permittivity constant, remnant polarization and coercive field of the [...] Read more.
A lead-free 0.94(Na0.5Bi0.5) TiO3-0.06 BaTiO3 (BNT-BT) thick film, with a thickness of 60 μm, has been fabricated using a tape-casting method. The longitudinal piezoelectric constant, clamped dielectric permittivity constant, remnant polarization and coercive field of the BNT-BT thick film were measured to be 150 pC/N, 1928, 13.6 μC/cm2, and 33.6 kV/cm, respectively. The electromechanical coupling coefficient kt was calculated to be 0.55 according to the measured electrical impedance spectrum. A high-frequency plane ultrasound transducer was successfully fabricated using a BNT-BT thick film. The performance of the transducer was characterized and evaluated by the pulse-echo testing and wire phantom imaging operations. The BNT-BT thick film transducer exhibits a center frequency of 34 MHz, a −6 dB bandwidth of 26%, an axial resolution of 77 μm and a lateral resolution of 484 μm. The results suggest that lead-free BNT-BT thick film fabricated by tape-casting method is a promising lead-free candidate for high-frequency ultrasonic transducer applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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12 pages, 4501 KiB  
Article
High-Efficiency Output Pressure Performance Using Capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducers with Substrate-Embedded Springs
by Byung Chul Lee, Amin Nikoozadeh, Kwan Kyu Park and Butrus T. Khuri-Yakub
Sensors 2018, 18(8), 2520; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18082520 - 02 Aug 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4685
Abstract
Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) with substrate-embedded springs offer highly efficient output pressure performance over conventional CMUTs, owing to their nonflexural parallel plate movement. The embedded silicon springs support thick Si piston plates, creating a large nonflexural average volume displacement efficiency in the [...] Read more.
Capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) with substrate-embedded springs offer highly efficient output pressure performance over conventional CMUTs, owing to their nonflexural parallel plate movement. The embedded silicon springs support thick Si piston plates, creating a large nonflexural average volume displacement efficiency in the operating frequency range from 1–3 MHz. Static and dynamic volume displacements of the nonflexural parallel plates were examined using white light interferometry and laser Doppler vibrometry. In addition, an output pressure measurement in immersion was performed using a hydrophone. The device showed a maximum transmission efficiency of 21 kPa/V, and an average volume displacement efficiency of 1.1 nm/V at 1.85 MHz with a low DC bias voltage of 55 V. The device element outperformed the lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ceramic HD3203, in the maximum transmission efficiency or the average volume displacement efficiency by 1.35 times. Furthermore, its average volume displacement efficiency reached almost 80% of the ideal state-of-the-art single-crystal relaxor ferroelectric materials PMN-0.33PT. Additionally, we confirmed that high-efficiency output pressure could be generated from the CMUT device, by quantitatively comparing the hydrophone measurement of a commercial PZT transducer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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14 pages, 5342 KiB  
Article
A 35 MHz/105 MHz Dual-Element Focused Transducer for Intravascular Ultrasound Tissue Imaging Using the Third Harmonic
by Junsu Lee, Ju-Young Moon and Jin Ho Chang
Sensors 2018, 18(7), 2290; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18072290 - 15 Jul 2018
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 5178
Abstract
The superharmonic imaging of tissue has the potential for high spatial and contrast resolutions, compared to the fundamental and second harmonic imaging. For this technique, the spectral bandwidth of an ultrasound transducer is divided for transmission of ultrasound and reception of its superharmonics [...] Read more.
The superharmonic imaging of tissue has the potential for high spatial and contrast resolutions, compared to the fundamental and second harmonic imaging. For this technique, the spectral bandwidth of an ultrasound transducer is divided for transmission of ultrasound and reception of its superharmonics (i.e., higher than the second harmonic). Due to the spectral division for the transmission and reception, transmitted ultrasound energy is not sufficient to induce superharmonics in media without using contrast agents, and it is difficult that a transducer has a −6 dB fractional bandwidth of higher than 100%. For the superharmonic imaging of tissue, thus, multi-frequency array transducers are the best choice if available; transmit and receive elements are separate and have different center frequencies. However, the construction of a multi-frequency transducer for intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) imaging is particularly demanding because of its small size of less than 1 mm. Here, we report a recently developed dual-element focused IVUS transducer for the third harmonic imaging of tissue, which consists of a 35-MHz element for ultrasound transmission and a 105-MHz element for third harmonic reception. For high quality third harmonic imaging, both elements were fabricated to have the same focus at 2.5 mm. The results of tissue mimicking phantom tests demonstrated that the third harmonic images produced by the developed transducer had higher spatial resolution and deeper imaging depth than the fundamental images. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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16 pages, 3868 KiB  
Article
A Capsule-Type Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer for Fast Screening of External Corrosion in Nonmagnetic Pipes
by Yong Li, Rui Cai, Bei Yan, Ilham Mukriz Zainal Abidin, Haoqing Jing and Yi Wang
Sensors 2018, 18(6), 1733; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18061733 - 28 May 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3955
Abstract
For fuel transmission and structural strengthening, small-diameter pipes of nonmagnetic materials are extensively adopted in engineering fields including aerospace, energy, transportation, etc. However, the hostile and corrosive environment leaves them vulnerable to external corrosion which poses a severe threat to structural integrity of [...] Read more.
For fuel transmission and structural strengthening, small-diameter pipes of nonmagnetic materials are extensively adopted in engineering fields including aerospace, energy, transportation, etc. However, the hostile and corrosive environment leaves them vulnerable to external corrosion which poses a severe threat to structural integrity of pipes. Therefore, it is imperative to nondestructively detect and evaluate the external corrosion in nonmagnetic pipes. In light of this, a capsule-type Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) for in-situ nondestructive evaluation of nonmagnetic pipes and fast screening of external corrosion is proposed in this paper. A 3D hybrid model for efficient prediction of responses from the proposed transducer to external corrosion is established. Closed-form expressions of field quantities of electromagnetics and EMAT signals are formulated. Simulations based on the hybrid model indicate feasibility of the proposed transducer in detection and evaluation of external corrosion in nonmagnetic pipes. In parallel, experiments with the fabricated transducer have been carried out. Experimental results are supportive of the conclusion drawn from simulations. The investigation via simulations and experiments implies that the proposed capsule-type EMAT is capable of fast screening of external corrosion, which is beneficial to the in-situ nondestructive evaluation of small-diameter nonmagnetic pipes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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Review

Jump to: Research

48 pages, 3305 KiB  
Review
Detection, Localisation and Assessment of Defects in Pipes Using Guided Wave Techniques: A Review
by Aidin Ghavamian, Faizal Mustapha, B.T Hang Tuah Baharudin and Noorfaizal Yidris
Sensors 2018, 18(12), 4470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s18124470 - 17 Dec 2018
Cited by 71 | Viewed by 10896
Abstract
This paper aims to provide an overview of the experimental and simulation works focused on the detection, localisation and assessment of various defects in pipes by applying fast-screening guided ultrasonic wave techniques that have been used in the oil and gas industries over [...] Read more.
This paper aims to provide an overview of the experimental and simulation works focused on the detection, localisation and assessment of various defects in pipes by applying fast-screening guided ultrasonic wave techniques that have been used in the oil and gas industries over the past 20 years. Major emphasis is placed on limitations, capabilities, defect detection in coated buried pipes under pressure and corrosion monitoring using different commercial guided wave (GW) systems, approaches to simulation techniques such as the finite element method (FEM), wave mode selection, excitation and collection, GW attenuation, signal processing and different types of GW transducers. The effects of defect parameters on reflection coefficients are also discussed in terms of different simulation studies and experimental verifications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultrasound Transducers)
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